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What is the primary goal of habituation?
Which type of conditioning is used in advertising campaigns?
What is the term for the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non-exposure?
What is the primary difference between reinforcement and punishment?
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What is the term for a stimulus that satisfies biological needs, such as food or water?
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What is the term for learning a response that decreases or ends aversive stimulation?
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What is the term for the process of learning to respond to one stimulus and not to a similar stimulus?
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What is the term for the stimuli that precedes a response and influences operant behavior?
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What is the estimated time of separation of the chimpanzee lineage from humans?
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Which of the following is a characteristic of Sumatran orangutans?
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What is the term for the phenomenon where male orangutans do not become physically mature until later in life, despite being reproductively mature?
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Which of the following is a distinguishing feature of Eastern gorillas?
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What is the average life expectancy of a gorilla after reaching sexual maturity?
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Which of the following is a characteristic of Bornean orangutans?
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What is the average age of a male gorilla when it becomes a silverback?
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Which of the following is a common habitat of most gorilla populations?
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What is the primary component of a gorilla's diet?
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Which of the following is a characteristic of Western gorillas?
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What is the main difference between traditional learning theory and ecological learning theory?
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What is the term for learning without an obvious reward?
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What is the main limitation of learning due to physical characteristics?
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What is the term for the phenomenon where an animal's innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning processing?
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What is the main goal of shaping via successive approximations?
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What is the term for learning through observing and imitating others?
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What is the term for the phenomenon where an animal exhibits excessive or abnormal behaviours during fixed-interval schedules?
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What is the term for the species-specific predisposition to be conditioned in certain ways and not others?
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What is the main idea behind Timberlake's Behaviour Systems Approach?
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What is the fifth why or determinant of behaviour according to the Behaviour Systems Approach?
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What is an ethogram?
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What is the main function of facial gestures in primates?
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What is the term for the evolutionary process that stereotypes a cue into a signal?
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What is the primary reason why primitive mammals have less elaborate facial expressions?
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What is the term for a signal whose intensity is causally related to the quality being signalled and which cannot be faked?
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What is the main advantage of the instantaneous and scan method of studying animal behaviour?
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What is the primary reason why primitive animals are considered intelligent?
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What is the term for a behaviour that is strongly biologically determined and has a specific form throughout a species?
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What is the main goal of phenotype matching in terms of altruistic behavior?
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What is the primary focus of research in modern zoos?
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What is the primary goal of enrichment in zoos?
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What was the primary finding in the original dog experiments on learned helplessness?
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What is the primary criticism of the original theory of learned helplessness?
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What is the primary difference between the original and revised theories of learned helplessness?
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What is the primary limitation of experiments using human participants to study learned helplessness?
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What is the primary consequence of experiencing uncontrollable outcomes, according to the revised theory of learned helplessness?
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What is the primary difference between internal and external attributions in the revised theory of learned helplessness?
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What is the primary function of contextual cues in altruistic behavior?
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What is the characteristic of a person with a depressive attributional style when it comes to good outcomes?
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What is the depressive realism hypothesis based on?
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According to Beck's theory of depression, what is the main factor that maintains depression?
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What is the assumption of the hopelessness theory of depression?
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What is the main idea of the positive illusions theory?
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What is the goal of attributional retraining, according to Martin Seligman?
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What is the purpose of phylogeny?
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Which of the following is a non-human ape?
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Which subfamily does the Orangutan belong to?
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Which of the following is a method of non-lethal management of predators and livestock?
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What is the average group size of gorillas in mixed forest?
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What is the main reason for infanticide in gorillas?
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How do gorillas typically communicate with each other?
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What is the difference in interbirth interval between gorillas and chimpanzees?
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What is the primary difference between western and central chimpanzees?
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How do chimpanzees usually travel?
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What is the main component of a chimpanzee's diet?
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How do chimpanzees typically nest?
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What is the average number of offspring a female chimpanzee has in her lifetime?
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What is the age of first swelling in female chimpanzees?
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What is the primary prey of chimpanzees in Gombe?
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What is the average party size of bonobos in a fission-fusion society?
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What is the percentage of time young chimpanzees spend with their mothers up to 9 years?
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What is the main difference between chimpanzees and bonobos in terms of aggression?
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What is the primary role of the alpha male in chimpanzee society?
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What is the average daily range of bonobos?
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What is unique about the way bonobos copulate?
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What is the main reason for the difference in behavior between chimpanzees and bonobos?
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What is the purpose of the 'rain-dance/waterfall display' in chimpanzee behavior?
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What is the unique aspect of bonobo female genitalia?
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What is the primary function of the amygdala in the context of memory?
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What is the primary signal that indicates the body is full and it's time to stop eating?
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What is the function of the hypothalamus in the context of hunger and eating?
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What is the term for the natural level or weight 'thermostat' for weight regulation?
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What is the term for the process of reducing metabolic activity and body temperature for less than a day?
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What is the term for the phenomenon where an animal's body temperature remains constant despite changes in the environment?
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What is a characteristic of chimpanzees in terms of their behavior towards females?
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What is the primary function of anandamide in the body?
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What is the primary difference between nocturnal and diurnal animals?
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What is a key difference between the genetic makeup of chimpanzees and humans?
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What is the term for the process of regulating body temperature through behavioral means, such as posture and orientation?
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What is a common feature of human and chimpanzee genomes?
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What is the term for the hormone that is produced by fat cells and helps to regulate body weight?
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What is a characteristic of bonobos?
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What is an example of an ethical issue related to our treatment of non-human apes?
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What is the primary function of the amygdala?
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What is a characteristic of the connections between the amygdala and the neocortex?
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What is a response to a strong stimulus that can be triggered by the amygdala?
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What is a characteristic of the way the amygdala responds to facial expressions?
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What is a possible explanation for why chimpanzees are susceptible to sleeping sickness, while humans are not?
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What is the key factor in mating among bonobos?
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What is the primary function of theory of mind in animals?
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What is the classic test of self-awareness in animals?
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What is the earliest evidence of hominid tools associated with?
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What is the significance of the Laetoli Hominid Trail?
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What is the most supported hypothesis for the origins of bipedalism?
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What is the significance of the discovery of Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy)?
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What is the characteristic behaviour of orangutans in the wild?
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What is the characteristic behaviour of gorillas in the wild?
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What is the distinct characteristic of bonobos in the wild?
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Study Notes
Biological and Learning Psychology
Habituation and Phobia
- Habituation: a stimulus is presented repeatedly, and the response to it weakens
- Phobia: an excessive and irrational fear of an object, place, or situation
Classical Conditioning
- Basic processing:
- Reinforcement Acquisition
- Spontaneous Recovery
- Generalisation
- Higher-order conditioning
- Extinction: repeated presentation of CS without UCS, producing a reduction and eventual disappearance of CR
- Discrimination: learning to respond to one stimulus and not to a similar stimulus
Operant Conditioning
- Principles of operant conditioning (3-term contingency):
- Reinforcement/Punishment (SR)
- Operant Response (R)
- Discriminative Stimulus (SD)
- Reinforcement: an event following a response increases the tendency to make that response
- Punishment: an event following a response decreases the tendency to make that response
- 3 factors influencing effectiveness of punishment:
- Severity
- Consistency
- Delay
- Negative Reinforcement: learning a response that decreases or ends aversive stimulation
- Shaping via Successive Approximations: specifying the goal or desired behaviour and reinforcing successively closer approximations
Observational Learning
- Vicarious reinforcement: learning through modelling of a response
- 4 necessary components to successful modelling:
- Attention
- Retention
- Motor reproduction
- Motivation
Ecological Learning Theory
- Focuses on principles of learning that take into account the ecological niche and lifestyle of the organism
- Recognises that behaviour cannot be described in isolation from its environment and biological function served by the learning
- Latent learning: learning without obvious reward
- Insight learning: solving a problem through perceiving interrelationships
Limits of Learning
- Physical characteristics: set limits on what an individual or species can learn
- Learned behaviour is not inherited: not passed on to future generations
- Individual differences: genes contribute to differences within and between species, but environment also plays a role
- Critical periods: stages of development for optimal learning
- Neurological damage: limits learning
Biological Constraints on Conditioning
- Instinctive drift and animal 'misbehaviour'
- Conditioned taste aversion
- Preparedness and phobias
Timberlake's Behaviour Systems Approach
- Integrates innate and learned behaviour
- Takes environment and adaptive functions into account
- Learning modifies behaviour systems that already exist
Behaviour Systems Approach
- Learning evolved as a modifier of behaviour systems that already exist
- The four whys or determinants of behaviour:
- Function (survival/adaptive value)
- Causation (control)
- Ontogeny (development)
- Phylogeny (evolution)
- Private Experience: what is the private experience of the animal presenting the behaviour?
- Ethogram: a descriptive catalogue of the behaviour that occurs within a species
Innate Behaviours
- Fixed action patterns: strongly biologically determined
- Rituals and displays: more stereotyped and complex
- Example: facial gestures are fixed action patterns
- Phylogenetic relationship of facial expressions/communication
Supernormal Stimuli and Signals
- Supernormal stimuli can elicit innate behaviours
- Signal: behaviour or structure that alters behaviour of others
- Cue: feature of the world that can be used as a guide to future action
- Ritualization: evolutionary process that stereotypes a cue into a signal
- Signal cost and handicaps
Learned Helplessness
- Original dog experiments: dogs failed to learn to escape from shocks in a shuttle box
- Criticisms of the original theory of learned helplessness
- Revised theory of learned helplessness: explaining the fact in terms of attributional dimensions
- Depressive realism hypothesis: depressed college students were more accurate in making judgements about their performance
Cognitive Theories of Depression
- Beck's theory of depression: depressives have negative schemas about the self, world, and others
- Hopelessness theory of depression: assumes depressed people generalise inappropriately from situations in which outcomes are uncontrollable to situations in which they are controllable
- Positive illusions: mentally healthy people distort reality, depressed patients are more realistic
Other Topics
- Non-lethal management of predators and livestock
- Phylogeny: the evolutionary history of a population and how it is related to others
- Ontogeny: the development or change in behaviour within the lifetime of an individual
- Living apes: bonobos, gibbons, chimpanzees, orangutans, gorillas, and humans
- Non-human apes: great apes, hands and feet, hominidae family, and taxonomy
- Orangutans: Bornean and Sumatran orangutans, distinguishing features, and developmental milestones
- Gorillas: western and eastern gorillas, distinguishing features, and developmental milestones### Gorillas
- Home range: 17-23 km² in mixed forest and swamp forest
- Day ranges: 1480-2590m
- No seasonal variation in daily ranges for Eastern gorillas, but dependent on fruiting seasons for Western gorillas
- Nests: typically on the ground, with tree nests more common in Grauer's gorillas
- Group size: 12 in mixed forest, 7 in swamp forest, 9 in Bais
- Relations between groups: use auditory displays (hoot series and chest beats) and visual displays (ground thump or branch breaking)
- Infanticide: accounts for at least 37% of infant mortality in Virunga, often after silverback death or inter-group encounters
- Mating: females solicit males, with a small swelling 2-3 days before mating
- Age at weaning: 3-4 years
- Interbirth interval: 47-51 months (if infant survived), 12-26 months (if infant died)
Chimpanzees
- Two species: Pan troglodytes (chimpanzee) and Pan paniscus (bonobo)
- Four subspecies of chimpanzees: Western, Nigeria-Cameroon, Central, and Eastern
- Distinguishing features: dark mask over eyes and nose in juveniles, bald scalp in adults, and white chin beard in older individuals
- Social structure: live in large communities (40-60 individuals), with a single alpha male and a hierarchy of females
- Home range: 50 km², with a broadly territorial and fragmented range
- Diet: mainly fruit (especially figs), with some meat consumption (red colobus and other monkeys)
- Nesting: usually in trees, with nests 10-12 meters up
- Grooming: reciprocal, with males groomed more than females
- Reproduction: age of first swelling 10.7 years, adolescent sterility 2.9 years, and first birth 12-23 years
- Mating strategies: promiscuity, possessiveness, consortship, and extra-community mating
Bonobos
- Found in the south of the Congo River
- Different behavior: squat when resting, shriller calls, less aggressive, and more sexual behavior
- Social structure: females disperse, with a fission-fusion society and a party size of 16.9
- Diet: mainly fruit, shoots, and leaves, with some earthworms and insects
- Food sharing: juveniles frequently beg for food, and adults share food
- Daily activity budget: 40% feeding, 32% resting, and 16% traveling
- Nesting: in bokumbo trees, with a less selective choice of day nests
- Sex: male-initiated, with a high frequency of ventro-ventral (missionary) sex
- Aggression: less frequent than in chimpanzees, with some submissive gestures
Comparative Cognition
- Study of information processing across species, including humans
- Theory of mind: ability to attribute mental states to others
- Self-awareness: demonstrated by mark and mirror test
- Dolphin cognition: difficult to design cognitive tests, with some evidence of self-awareness
Hominid Evolution
- Evidence: fossils, with some tools found with fossils
- Earliest hominid tools: associated with scavenging, dated to 2.5 million years ago
- Laetoli Hominid Trail: footprints probably made by Australopithecus afarensis, showing early bipedalism
- Origins of bipedalism: postural feeding hypothesis, behavioral hypothesis, and thermoregulatory hypothesis
- Increasing brain size and new behaviors: corresponding to environmental changes
- New theory: early humans were scavengers, not hunters
- Famous hominids: Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy), Homo habilis (handyman), Homo erectus (Nariokotome Boy), and Homo naledi (Neo)
The Dark Side of the Great Apes
- Orangutans: rape, with small males in "arrested development"
- Gorillas: infanticide, with males demonstrating female vulnerability
- Chimpanzees: battering females, with males brutalizing females to dominate them
- Bonobos: reduced levels of violence, with males and females co-dominant
Ethics
- Ota Benga: African pygmy, with a sad story of display and treatment
- Sarrje (Sarah) Baartman: South African woman, with a sad story of display and treatment
- Ethical obligations to non-human apes: responsible wildlife tourism, ethical field research, and human-wildlife conflict resolution
The Biology of Fear
- Many common psychiatric disorders relate to the brain's fear system
- Amygdala responds to frightful faces, objects of fear, and facial expressions
- A strong stimulus can result in piloerection, heart racing, and flight/fight hormones
- Feelings of fear: if fear message is a false alarm, cortex tries to abort amygdala's alarm signals
- Memory and the amygdala: conscious memory of the accident and physiological responses elicited reflect two separate memory systems operating in parallel
The Biology of Hunger
- Glucose: the body's main fuel, with a natural level or weight thermostat for weight regulation
- Body chemistry: insulin, leptin, and anandamide (the "bliss" molecule)
- Hunger and the brain: the hypothalamus controls eating and other body maintenance functions
- Eating disorders: obesity, anorexia nervosa, and bulimia nervosa
The Biology of Thermoregulation
- Different systems for regulation of body temperature: poikilothermy, ectothermy, endothermy, and homothermy
- Counter-current heat exchange: warm and cold blood flow in opposite directions to regulate the temperature
- Behavioral thermoregulation: using posture, orientation, and/or microclimate selection to regulate body temperature
- Torpor and estivation: reduced metabolic activity and body temperature for less than a day, or long-term torpor occurring in the summer months
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