Biological and Learning Psychology - Quiz 1
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary goal of habituation?

  • To create a pleasant emotional response
  • To create an excessive and irrational fear of an object, place or situation
  • To weaken the response to a stimulus presented repeatedly (correct)
  • To increase the tendency to make a response

    • Which type of conditioning is used in advertising campaigns?

  • Sensitization
  • Operant conditioning
  • Habituation
  • Classical conditioning (correct)

    • What is the term for the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non-exposure?

  • Spontaneous recovery (correct)
  • Extinction
  • Higher-order conditioning
  • Generalisation

    • What is the primary difference between reinforcement and punishment?

    <p>Reinforcement increases the tendency to make a response, while punishment decreases it</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a stimulus that satisfies biological needs, such as food or water?

    <p>Primary reinforcer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for learning a response that decreases or ends aversive stimulation?

    <p>Escape learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of learning to respond to one stimulus and not to a similar stimulus?

    <p>Discrimination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the stimuli that precedes a response and influences operant behavior?

    <p>Discriminative stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the estimated time of separation of the chimpanzee lineage from humans?

    <p>665 million years ago</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of Sumatran orangutans?

    <p>Longer, oval faces</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the phenomenon where male orangutans do not become physically mature until later in life, despite being reproductively mature?

    <p>Arrested adolescence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a distinguishing feature of Eastern gorillas?

    <p>Jet black in colour</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the average life expectancy of a gorilla after reaching sexual maturity?

    <p>17-19 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of Bornean orangutans?

    <p>Less dense, darker body hair</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the average age of a male gorilla when it becomes a silverback?

    <p>12-13 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a common habitat of most gorilla populations?

    <p>Lowland rainforest and swamp forest</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary component of a gorilla's diet?

    <p>Terrestrial herbaceous vegetation (THV)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of Western gorillas?

    <p>Blackish-brown colour</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between traditional learning theory and ecological learning theory?

    <p>Ecological learning theory takes into account the ecological niche and lifestyle of the organism.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for learning without an obvious reward?

    <p>Latent learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main limitation of learning due to physical characteristics?

    <p>Chimpanzees can't learn to speak like humans due to their different anatomical vocal structures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the phenomenon where an animal's innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning processing?

    <p>Instinctive drift</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main goal of shaping via successive approximations?

    <p>To specify the goal or desired behaviour</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for learning through observing and imitating others?

    <p>Observational learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the phenomenon where an animal exhibits excessive or abnormal behaviours during fixed-interval schedules?

    <p>Schedule-induced behaviour</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the species-specific predisposition to be conditioned in certain ways and not others?

    <p>Preparedness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main idea behind Timberlake's Behaviour Systems Approach?

    <p>Learning is a modifier of behaviour systems that already exist</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the fifth why or determinant of behaviour according to the Behaviour Systems Approach?

    <p>Private Experience</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an ethogram?

    <p>A descriptive catalogue of the behaviour that occurs within a species</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of facial gestures in primates?

    <p>To express emotions and intentions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the evolutionary process that stereotypes a cue into a signal?

    <p>Ritualization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why primitive mammals have less elaborate facial expressions?

    <p>Because they are less evolved</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a signal whose intensity is causally related to the quality being signalled and which cannot be faked?

    <p>Index</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main advantage of the instantaneous and scan method of studying animal behaviour?

    <p>It provides a comprehensive picture of the social group as a whole</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why primitive animals are considered intelligent?

    <p>Because they are able to solve ecological and social problems</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a behaviour that is strongly biologically determined and has a specific form throughout a species?

    <p>Fixed action pattern</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main goal of phenotype matching in terms of altruistic behavior?

    <p>To identify kin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of research in modern zoos?

    <p>Research and conservation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of enrichment in zoos?

    <p>To stimulate the animals' natural behaviors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary finding in the original dog experiments on learned helplessness?

    <p>Two thirds of the dogs failed to learn to escape the shock</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary criticism of the original theory of learned helplessness?

    <p>It goes beyond the experimental findings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the original and revised theories of learned helplessness?

    <p>The revised theory focuses on attributional dimensions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary limitation of experiments using human participants to study learned helplessness?

    <p>The validity of the results is open to question</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of experiencing uncontrollable outcomes, according to the revised theory of learned helplessness?

    <p>Explaining the outcome in terms of attributional dimensions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between internal and external attributions in the revised theory of learned helplessness?

    <p>Internal attributions determine personal helplessness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of contextual cues in altruistic behavior?

    <p>To provide more information about the situation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of a person with a depressive attributional style when it comes to good outcomes?

    <p>External, unstable, specific attributions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the depressive realism hypothesis based on?

    <p>Depressed college students are more accurate in making judgments about their performance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Beck's theory of depression, what is the main factor that maintains depression?

    <p>Negative schemas about the self, world, and others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the assumption of the hopelessness theory of depression?

    <p>Depressed people display an unrealistic attributional style</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main idea of the positive illusions theory?

    <p>Mentally healthy people distort reality, whereas depressed people are realistic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the goal of attributional retraining, according to Martin Seligman?

    <p>To develop a healthy attributional style</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of phylogeny?

    <p>To study the evolutionary history of a population and how it is related to others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a non-human ape?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which subfamily does the Orangutan belong to?

    <p>Ponginae</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a method of non-lethal management of predators and livestock?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the average group size of gorillas in mixed forest?

    <p>12</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main reason for infanticide in gorillas?

    <p>Following death of silverback in one male unit</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do gorillas typically communicate with each other?

    <p>Auditory displays followed by chest beats</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference in interbirth interval between gorillas and chimpanzees?

    <p>Gorillas have a shorter interbirth interval</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between western and central chimpanzees?

    <p>Juvenile facial features</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do chimpanzees usually travel?

    <p>In small groups</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main component of a chimpanzee's diet?

    <p>Fruits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do chimpanzees typically nest?

    <p>In trees</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the average number of offspring a female chimpanzee has in her lifetime?

    <p>3.9</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the age of first swelling in female chimpanzees?

    <p>10.7 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary prey of chimpanzees in Gombe?

    <p>Red colobus monkey</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the average party size of bonobos in a fission-fusion society?

    <p>6-35</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of time young chimpanzees spend with their mothers up to 9 years?

    <p>50-60%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between chimpanzees and bonobos in terms of aggression?

    <p>Chimpanzees are more aggressive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the alpha male in chimpanzee society?

    <p>Making most displays</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the average daily range of bonobos?

    <p>2 km</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is unique about the way bonobos copulate?

    <p>They copulate ventro-ventrally</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main reason for the difference in behavior between chimpanzees and bonobos?

    <p>Evolutionary history</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the 'rain-dance/waterfall display' in chimpanzee behavior?

    <p>To assert dominance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the unique aspect of bonobo female genitalia?

    <p>They never lose sexual arousal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the amygdala in the context of memory?

    <p>To process and store conscious memories of emotional events</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary signal that indicates the body is full and it's time to stop eating?

    <p>The distension of the stomach</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the hypothalamus in the context of hunger and eating?

    <p>To monitor appetite hormone levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the natural level or weight 'thermostat' for weight regulation?

    <p>Set Point</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of reducing metabolic activity and body temperature for less than a day?

    <p>Torpor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the phenomenon where an animal's body temperature remains constant despite changes in the environment?

    <p>Homothermy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of chimpanzees in terms of their behavior towards females?

    <p>They systematically brutalize each female in turn to dominate them.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of anandamide in the body?

    <p>To influence appetite and fertility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between nocturnal and diurnal animals?

    <p>Their activity patterns</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key difference between the genetic makeup of chimpanzees and humans?

    <p>Chimpanzees have a mutated gene that explains human-specific features of Alzheimer's.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of regulating body temperature through behavioral means, such as posture and orientation?

    <p>Behavioral thermoregulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common feature of human and chimpanzee genomes?

    <p>They have identical sequences of amino acids in their alpha chains of hemoglobin.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the hormone that is produced by fat cells and helps to regulate body weight?

    <p>Leptin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of bonobos?

    <p>They are co-dominant and use sex to resolve conflict.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of an ethical issue related to our treatment of non-human apes?

    <p>The display of Ota Benga at the Bronx Zoo.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the amygdala?

    <p>To process emotional information and detect predators.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of the connections between the amygdala and the neocortex?

    <p>They are weaker from the neocortex to the amygdala.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a response to a strong stimulus that can be triggered by the amygdala?

    <p>Piloerection and heart racing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of the way the amygdala responds to facial expressions?

    <p>It responds preferentially to faces expressing fear and joy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a possible explanation for why chimpanzees are susceptible to sleeping sickness, while humans are not?

    <p>Chimpanzees have a mutated APOL1 gene.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key factor in mating among bonobos?

    <p>Female choice</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of theory of mind in animals?

    <p>To attribute mental states to others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the classic test of self-awareness in animals?

    <p>Mark and mirror test</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the earliest evidence of hominid tools associated with?

    <p>Scavenging</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the Laetoli Hominid Trail?

    <p>It provides evidence of early bipedalism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most supported hypothesis for the origins of bipedalism?

    <p>Postural feeding hypothesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the discovery of Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy)?

    <p>It provides evidence of early bipedalism preceding the evolution of a bigger brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic behaviour of orangutans in the wild?

    <p>Rape of females</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic behaviour of gorillas in the wild?

    <p>Infanticide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the distinct characteristic of bonobos in the wild?

    <p>Gentle and 'sexy' behaviour</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Biological and Learning Psychology

    Habituation and Phobia

    • Habituation: a stimulus is presented repeatedly, and the response to it weakens
    • Phobia: an excessive and irrational fear of an object, place, or situation

    Classical Conditioning

    • Basic processing:
      • Reinforcement Acquisition
      • Spontaneous Recovery
      • Generalisation
      • Higher-order conditioning
    • Extinction: repeated presentation of CS without UCS, producing a reduction and eventual disappearance of CR
    • Discrimination: learning to respond to one stimulus and not to a similar stimulus

    Operant Conditioning

    • Principles of operant conditioning (3-term contingency):
      • Reinforcement/Punishment (SR)
      • Operant Response (R)
      • Discriminative Stimulus (SD)
    • Reinforcement: an event following a response increases the tendency to make that response
    • Punishment: an event following a response decreases the tendency to make that response
    • 3 factors influencing effectiveness of punishment:
      • Severity
      • Consistency
      • Delay
    • Negative Reinforcement: learning a response that decreases or ends aversive stimulation
    • Shaping via Successive Approximations: specifying the goal or desired behaviour and reinforcing successively closer approximations

    Observational Learning

    • Vicarious reinforcement: learning through modelling of a response
    • 4 necessary components to successful modelling:
      1. Attention
      2. Retention
      3. Motor reproduction
      4. Motivation

    Ecological Learning Theory

    • Focuses on principles of learning that take into account the ecological niche and lifestyle of the organism
    • Recognises that behaviour cannot be described in isolation from its environment and biological function served by the learning
    • Latent learning: learning without obvious reward
    • Insight learning: solving a problem through perceiving interrelationships

    Limits of Learning

    • Physical characteristics: set limits on what an individual or species can learn
    • Learned behaviour is not inherited: not passed on to future generations
    • Individual differences: genes contribute to differences within and between species, but environment also plays a role
    • Critical periods: stages of development for optimal learning
    • Neurological damage: limits learning

    Biological Constraints on Conditioning

    • Instinctive drift and animal 'misbehaviour'
    • Conditioned taste aversion
    • Preparedness and phobias

    Timberlake's Behaviour Systems Approach

    • Integrates innate and learned behaviour
    • Takes environment and adaptive functions into account
    • Learning modifies behaviour systems that already exist

    Behaviour Systems Approach

    • Learning evolved as a modifier of behaviour systems that already exist
    • The four whys or determinants of behaviour:
      1. Function (survival/adaptive value)
      2. Causation (control)
      3. Ontogeny (development)
      4. Phylogeny (evolution)
    • Private Experience: what is the private experience of the animal presenting the behaviour?
    • Ethogram: a descriptive catalogue of the behaviour that occurs within a species

    Innate Behaviours

    • Fixed action patterns: strongly biologically determined
    • Rituals and displays: more stereotyped and complex
    • Example: facial gestures are fixed action patterns
    • Phylogenetic relationship of facial expressions/communication

    Supernormal Stimuli and Signals

    • Supernormal stimuli can elicit innate behaviours
    • Signal: behaviour or structure that alters behaviour of others
    • Cue: feature of the world that can be used as a guide to future action
    • Ritualization: evolutionary process that stereotypes a cue into a signal
    • Signal cost and handicaps

    Learned Helplessness

    • Original dog experiments: dogs failed to learn to escape from shocks in a shuttle box
    • Criticisms of the original theory of learned helplessness
    • Revised theory of learned helplessness: explaining the fact in terms of attributional dimensions
    • Depressive realism hypothesis: depressed college students were more accurate in making judgements about their performance

    Cognitive Theories of Depression

    • Beck's theory of depression: depressives have negative schemas about the self, world, and others
    • Hopelessness theory of depression: assumes depressed people generalise inappropriately from situations in which outcomes are uncontrollable to situations in which they are controllable
    • Positive illusions: mentally healthy people distort reality, depressed patients are more realistic

    Other Topics

    • Non-lethal management of predators and livestock
    • Phylogeny: the evolutionary history of a population and how it is related to others
    • Ontogeny: the development or change in behaviour within the lifetime of an individual
    • Living apes: bonobos, gibbons, chimpanzees, orangutans, gorillas, and humans
    • Non-human apes: great apes, hands and feet, hominidae family, and taxonomy
    • Orangutans: Bornean and Sumatran orangutans, distinguishing features, and developmental milestones
    • Gorillas: western and eastern gorillas, distinguishing features, and developmental milestones### Gorillas
    • Home range: 17-23 km² in mixed forest and swamp forest
    • Day ranges: 1480-2590m
    • No seasonal variation in daily ranges for Eastern gorillas, but dependent on fruiting seasons for Western gorillas
    • Nests: typically on the ground, with tree nests more common in Grauer's gorillas
    • Group size: 12 in mixed forest, 7 in swamp forest, 9 in Bais
    • Relations between groups: use auditory displays (hoot series and chest beats) and visual displays (ground thump or branch breaking)
    • Infanticide: accounts for at least 37% of infant mortality in Virunga, often after silverback death or inter-group encounters
    • Mating: females solicit males, with a small swelling 2-3 days before mating
    • Age at weaning: 3-4 years
    • Interbirth interval: 47-51 months (if infant survived), 12-26 months (if infant died)

    Chimpanzees

    • Two species: Pan troglodytes (chimpanzee) and Pan paniscus (bonobo)
    • Four subspecies of chimpanzees: Western, Nigeria-Cameroon, Central, and Eastern
    • Distinguishing features: dark mask over eyes and nose in juveniles, bald scalp in adults, and white chin beard in older individuals
    • Social structure: live in large communities (40-60 individuals), with a single alpha male and a hierarchy of females
    • Home range: 50 km², with a broadly territorial and fragmented range
    • Diet: mainly fruit (especially figs), with some meat consumption (red colobus and other monkeys)
    • Nesting: usually in trees, with nests 10-12 meters up
    • Grooming: reciprocal, with males groomed more than females
    • Reproduction: age of first swelling 10.7 years, adolescent sterility 2.9 years, and first birth 12-23 years
    • Mating strategies: promiscuity, possessiveness, consortship, and extra-community mating

    Bonobos

    • Found in the south of the Congo River
    • Different behavior: squat when resting, shriller calls, less aggressive, and more sexual behavior
    • Social structure: females disperse, with a fission-fusion society and a party size of 16.9
    • Diet: mainly fruit, shoots, and leaves, with some earthworms and insects
    • Food sharing: juveniles frequently beg for food, and adults share food
    • Daily activity budget: 40% feeding, 32% resting, and 16% traveling
    • Nesting: in bokumbo trees, with a less selective choice of day nests
    • Sex: male-initiated, with a high frequency of ventro-ventral (missionary) sex
    • Aggression: less frequent than in chimpanzees, with some submissive gestures

    Comparative Cognition

    • Study of information processing across species, including humans
    • Theory of mind: ability to attribute mental states to others
    • Self-awareness: demonstrated by mark and mirror test
    • Dolphin cognition: difficult to design cognitive tests, with some evidence of self-awareness

    Hominid Evolution

    • Evidence: fossils, with some tools found with fossils
    • Earliest hominid tools: associated with scavenging, dated to 2.5 million years ago
    • Laetoli Hominid Trail: footprints probably made by Australopithecus afarensis, showing early bipedalism
    • Origins of bipedalism: postural feeding hypothesis, behavioral hypothesis, and thermoregulatory hypothesis
    • Increasing brain size and new behaviors: corresponding to environmental changes
    • New theory: early humans were scavengers, not hunters
    • Famous hominids: Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy), Homo habilis (handyman), Homo erectus (Nariokotome Boy), and Homo naledi (Neo)

    The Dark Side of the Great Apes

    • Orangutans: rape, with small males in "arrested development"
    • Gorillas: infanticide, with males demonstrating female vulnerability
    • Chimpanzees: battering females, with males brutalizing females to dominate them
    • Bonobos: reduced levels of violence, with males and females co-dominant

    Ethics

    • Ota Benga: African pygmy, with a sad story of display and treatment
    • Sarrje (Sarah) Baartman: South African woman, with a sad story of display and treatment
    • Ethical obligations to non-human apes: responsible wildlife tourism, ethical field research, and human-wildlife conflict resolution

    The Biology of Fear

    • Many common psychiatric disorders relate to the brain's fear system
    • Amygdala responds to frightful faces, objects of fear, and facial expressions
    • A strong stimulus can result in piloerection, heart racing, and flight/fight hormones
    • Feelings of fear: if fear message is a false alarm, cortex tries to abort amygdala's alarm signals
    • Memory and the amygdala: conscious memory of the accident and physiological responses elicited reflect two separate memory systems operating in parallel

    The Biology of Hunger

    • Glucose: the body's main fuel, with a natural level or weight thermostat for weight regulation
    • Body chemistry: insulin, leptin, and anandamide (the "bliss" molecule)
    • Hunger and the brain: the hypothalamus controls eating and other body maintenance functions
    • Eating disorders: obesity, anorexia nervosa, and bulimia nervosa

    The Biology of Thermoregulation

    • Different systems for regulation of body temperature: poikilothermy, ectothermy, endothermy, and homothermy
    • Counter-current heat exchange: warm and cold blood flow in opposite directions to regulate the temperature
    • Behavioral thermoregulation: using posture, orientation, and/or microclimate selection to regulate body temperature
    • Torpor and estivation: reduced metabolic activity and body temperature for less than a day, or long-term torpor occurring in the summer months

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