Psychology of Child Development

Questions and Answers

Which theory of development aligns most closely with Erikson's view that personal identity and interpersonal attitudes evolve throughout life?

Bioecological Theory

Epigenetic Theory

Life Span Developmental Theory (correct)

Dynamic Systems Theory

Which developmental theory is primarily focused on the idea that individuals are influenced by their environments and interactions, especially in their early years?

Epigenetic Theory

Dynamic Systems Theory

Bioecological Theory (correct)

Life Course Theory

The text describes a "crisis" that individuals face in each stage of development. Which theory emphasizes the importance of resolving these "crises" for healthy development?

Life Course Theory

Epigenetic Theory (correct)

Dynamic Systems Theory

Life Span Developmental Theory

Which theory emphasizes the interplay of individual characteristics and environmental factors in shaping development?

Dynamic Systems Theory Signup and view all the answers

According to the passage, Erikson's theory of psychosocial development extends beyond childhood. Which theory also emphasizes the importance of understanding development across the entire lifespan?

Life Course Theory Signup and view all the answers

Which theory posits that development is influenced by a combination of biological maturation and the sociocultural context in which an individual lives?

Life Course Theory Signup and view all the answers

Which developmental theory suggests that individuals continually adapt to their surroundings through interactions that impact both personal growth and societal norms?

Bioecological Theory Signup and view all the answers

In which theory is the concept of 'crisis' used to explain the challenges faced at different stages of development?

Life Span Developmental Theory Signup and view all the answers

Which theory proposes that development is a result of complex interactions between biological and environmental systems over time?

Dynamic Systems Theory Signup and view all the answers

Which theory emphasizes that personal identity evolves through various stages that are interdependent with societal circumstances throughout life?

Life Course Theory Signup and view all the answers

The concept of qualitative changes from one developmental stage to another is central to which theory?

Life Span Developmental Theory Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following theories highlights the importance of environmental systems and contexts at various levels for understanding development?

Bioecological Theory Signup and view all the answers

Which theory involves the interplay between genetic predispositions and external influences throughout an individual's lifespan?

Epigenetic Theory Signup and view all the answers

Which theory closely aligns with the idea that developmental challenges and tasks are fluid and constantly change based on an individual's life stage?

Dynamic Systems Theory Signup and view all the answers

Which developmental theory takes into account the historical context in which individuals experience growth and identity formation?

Life Course Theory Signup and view all the answers

Epigenetic Theory asserts that both nature and nurture are important in developmental change.

True Signup and view all the answers

Life Span Developmental Theory only focuses on childhood and ignores adult development.

False Signup and view all the answers

Life Course Theory posits that development is influenced primarily by cultural and historical contexts.

True Signup and view all the answers

Dynamic Systems Theory suggests that development occurs in a linear progression without variations.

False Signup and view all the answers

Bioecological Theory focuses only on the immediate environment of an individual.

False Signup and view all the answers

According to Epigenetic Theory, genetic changes can occur throughout an individual's life, influenced by experiences.

True Signup and view all the answers

Life Span Developmental Theory recognizes qualitative changes as more significant than quantitative changes.

False Signup and view all the answers

Life Course Theory includes the idea that significant life events can create different developmental pathways.

True Signup and view all the answers

Dynamic Systems Theory implies that individuals are passive recipients of development, affected solely by external forces.

False Signup and view all the answers

Bioecological Theory integrates multiple layers of influence, from immediate to distant contexts, affecting development.

True Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following effects is NOT commonly associated with alcohol consumption during pregnancy?

Low birth weight Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential consequence of cocaine use during pregnancy?

Higher rates of later learning problems Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about marijuana use during pregnancy is correct?

It may enhance postnatal stress vulnerability Signup and view all the answers

What is a misconception about tobacco use during pregnancy?

It is safe in moderation Signup and view all the answers

Which teratogen is associated with cleft palate and hyperactivity?

Tobacco Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic commonly associated with Down Syndrome that is also mentioned in the table as a potential effect of alcohol consumption during pregnancy?

Brain abnormalities Signup and view all the answers

Cri-du-chat syndrome is a genetic disorder caused by a deletion of part of chromosome 5. How does this relate to the concept of "teratogens" as presented in the table?

Cri-du-chat syndrome is not a teratogen but a genetic condition that can have similar effects on fetal development as some teratogens. Signup and view all the answers

If a child is diagnosed with an intellectual disability, based on the information in the table, what is the most likely explanation for the cause?

It could be caused by exposure to a teratogen during pregnancy, like alcohol or tobacco. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following options is NOT a common characteristic of Down Syndrome?

Premature birth Signup and view all the answers

Based on the table, how do teratogens differ from genetic causes of developmental problems like Down Syndrome?

Teratogens are environmental factors, while genetic causes are predetermined. Signup and view all the answers

If a parent has a genetic condition, what is the chance of their child inheriting it?

It depends on the specific genetic condition and inheritance pattern. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between Down Syndrome and Cri-du-chat syndrome based on their causes?

Down Syndrome is caused by an extra chromosome, while Cri-du-chat syndrome is caused by a deleted portion of a chromosome. Signup and view all the answers

Which of these is NOT considered a primary risk factor for developing Down Syndrome?

Exposure to certain teratogens during pregnancy Signup and view all the answers

How is the risk of having a child with Down Syndrome related to the mother's age?

The risk increases as the mother's age increases. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best describes the relationship between intellectual disability and teratogens?

Teratogens can be a contributing factor to intellectual disability, but they are not the only cause. Signup and view all the answers

Alcohol consumption during pregnancy is linked to an increased risk of developing Down Syndrome.

False Signup and view all the answers

Cri-du-chat syndrome results from a missing piece of chromosome 5.

True Signup and view all the answers

Down Syndrome is a genetic disorder that can be influenced by teratogens such as cocaine during pregnancy.

False Signup and view all the answers

Intellectual disabilities can be a result of both genetic abnormalities and teratogenic exposures.

True Signup and view all the answers

All children diagnosed with Down Syndrome will exhibit the same level of intellectual disability.

False Signup and view all the answers

Genetic inheritance plays no role in the development of Cri-du-chat syndrome.

True Signup and view all the answers

Advanced maternal age is a significant risk factor for chromosomal variations like Down Syndrome.

True Signup and view all the answers

Cocaine is considered a safe substance during pregnancy when used in moderation.

False Signup and view all the answers

Down Syndrome and Cri-du-chat syndrome are both examples of conditions caused by genetic abnormalities.

True Signup and view all the answers

Individuals with Down Syndrome have a predisposed risk for developing significant learning difficulties.

True Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind the use of habituation and preferential response paradigms in developmental science?

To explore infants' ability to learn and remember new information. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following examples best demonstrates the concept of 'deferred imitation' in infants?

An infant repeats a series of actions they observed earlier, even when the model is not present. Signup and view all the answers

How does Piaget's concept of sensorimotor activity relate to the development of mental representation in infants?

Piaget proposed that sensorimotor experiences gradually transform into mental images and other representations that support thought. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios best exemplifies the concept of 'recognition' in infants?

An infant recognizes their mother's voice even when they cannot see her. Signup and view all the answers

Why is the concept of 'object permanence' important for understanding infant cognitive development?

It indicates that infants are able to form mental representations of objects, even when those objects are not visible. Signup and view all the answers

What is an important factor correlating with later intelligence in infants?

The speed of habituation to a stimulus Signup and view all the answers

Which ability is characterized by recognizing a previously experienced stimulus?

Recognition Signup and view all the answers

Which concept refers to retrieving a past experience without external cues?

Recall Signup and view all the answers

What cognitive process is necessary for a child to engage in deferred imitation?

Forming a mental representation of observed actions Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes recognition from recall in cognitive development?

Recognition occurs when stimuli are repeated, whereas recall requires mental representation. Signup and view all the answers

At what age is recognition speed a significant indicator of cognitive processing efficiency?

4 months Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of infant behavior is suggested to emerge later than recognition skills?

Deferred imitation Signup and view all the answers

Immediate imitation, as seen in early infancy, is often debated regarding its true nature of imitation. What early example illustrates this phenomenon?

Protruding the tongue when prompted Signup and view all the answers

What does the ability to form mental representations allow a child to do during the recall process?

Remember past experiences and execute those actions later Signup and view all the answers

A baby's speed of habituation to a new stimulus is unrelated to their later intelligence.

False Signup and view all the answers

Recognition requires the formation of a mental representation of the experience.

True Signup and view all the answers

Deferred imitation, an indicator of recall, requires the ability to mentally represent previously observed actions.

True Signup and view all the answers

Recognition and recall abilities develop at roughly the same rate in infancy.

False Signup and view all the answers

A baby's ability to recall a specific event is not related to their ability to form a mental representation.

False Signup and view all the answers

A baby's immediate imitation of a facial expression, such as sticking out their tongue, is a definite sign of recall.

False Signup and view all the answers

Habituation speed is a reliable measure of a baby's overall cognitive development.

True Signup and view all the answers

Recognition involves remembering a past experience without it being repeated.

False Signup and view all the answers

Deferred imitation is a direct measure of a child's ability to recognize a previously observed action.

False Signup and view all the answers

Older babies require fewer exposures to a stimulus before showing signs of recognition compared to younger babies.

True Signup and view all the answers

What type of attachment is commonly associated with frightening and abusive parental behavior?

Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is most strongly linked to the quality of an infant's secure attachment?

Maternal sensitivity and responsiveness Signup and view all the answers

What behavior is NOT associated with promoting secure attachments in infants?

Expressing frustration or boredom Signup and view all the answers

Ambivalent attachment in infants typically results from which type of caregiving?

Inconsistent and unpredictable Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic is essential for interactional synchrony during caregiver-infant interactions?

Active engagement without interruptions Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a key ingredient of "sensitivity" that promotes secure attachment?

Expressing hostility, boredom, or frustration Signup and view all the answers

In Ainsworth's research, which attachment category was NOT identified but later emerged as associated with frightening or abusive parental behavior?

Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment Signup and view all the answers

Based on the text, what is a key characteristic of mothers who are likely to raise children with a disorganized-disoriented attachment style?

They exhibit inconsistent behavior, sometimes appearing affectionate and sometimes frightening or abusive. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the relationship between maternal sensitivity and infant security?

Maternal sensitivity is a universal factor that contributes to secure attachment across diverse cultural groups. Signup and view all the answers

What is the most significant factor in promoting secure attachment, according to the text?

Responding promptly and consistently to the infant's distress signals. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main implication of research findings on the importance of sensitive caregiving for infant attachment?

Early interventions are crucial to address attachment problems and ensure healthy development. Signup and view all the answers

Which attachment style is characterized by an infant who is both distressed by separation from their caregiver and resistant to comfort upon reunion?

Insecure-Ambivalent Attachment Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following parental behaviors is LEAST likely to contribute to secure attachment in an infant?

Being emotionally distant and unresponsive to their infant's needs. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a key finding from research on the link between maternal sensitivity and infant security?

The impact of maternal sensitivity is limited to early childhood and fades with age. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key distinction between Insecure-Avoidant and Insecure-Ambivalent attachment styles?

Insecure-Avoidant infants tend to ignore or avoid their caregiver upon reunion. Signup and view all the answers

Secure attachment is characterized by infants displaying distress upon separation from their caregivers and seeking comfort upon reunion.

True Signup and view all the answers

Ambivalent attachment is often associated with caregivers who are inconsistent in their responsiveness to the infant's needs.

True Signup and view all the answers

High-quality caregiving is strongly linked to the development of secure attachment in infants.

True Signup and view all the answers

Disorganized-disoriented attachment is observed in infants who exhibit confused or contradictory behaviors towards their caregivers.

True Signup and view all the answers

Insecure attachment styles are always indicative of neglectful or abusive parenting.

False Signup and view all the answers

Infants with insecure attachment styles are less likely to explore their surroundings in the presence of their caregiver.

True Signup and view all the answers

A caregiver's sensitivity to an infant's cues is irrelevant to the development of secure attachment.

False Signup and view all the answers

The 'strange situation' test is designed to assess the quality of attachment between infants and their caregivers.

True Signup and view all the answers

Insecure attachment styles are always a result of neglectful or abusive parenting.

False Signup and view all the answers

Secure attachment is the most common attachment style, indicating that most infants develop a healthy and trusting relationship with their caregivers.

True Signup and view all the answers

What is a key factor that aids in the development of emotional regulation in infants?

Responsive caregiving Signup and view all the answers

Which cognitive ability is essential for a toddler's emerging behavior regulation?

Representational thought Signup and view all the answers

How do toddlers start to comprehend social expectations, according to their development?

By responding to parental requests and societal norms Signup and view all the answers

What role does language play in a toddler's self-regulation skills?

It provides a framework for understanding rules. Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of behavior regulation is closely related to a child's ability to recognize their own actions as wrong?

Self-awareness Signup and view all the answers

What is a critical component of behavior regulation that emerges in tandem with objective self-awareness?

Emotional response to wrongdoing Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the ability to understand and produce language, which is important for self-regulation?

Representational thought Signup and view all the answers

What do caregivers do to help infants develop affect-regulation systems?

Step in to help the child regain affective control Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of language in self-regulation, according to Blair (2016)?

Language is important for self-regulation Signup and view all the answers

What do standards or rules, such as 'Don't jump on the furniture', represent in the context of behavior regulation?

A broader value or principle Signup and view all the answers

At what age do babies show some capacity for representational thought, such as deferred imitation and separation anxiety?

9 or 10 months Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process of helping the child develop their ability to regulate emotional and behavioral expression?

Scaffolding Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the caregiver's role in behavior regulation?

They provide critical ingredients for the development of the affect-regulation system Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between representational thought and language development?

Representational thought supports language development Signup and view all the answers

What do parents' requests, such as 'Share your candy with your sister', represent in the context of behavior regulation?

A broader value or principle Signup and view all the answers

The ability to delay gratification is a key aspect of executive function, and it is fully developed by the time children reach preschool age.

False Signup and view all the answers

A toddler's emerging self-awareness is demonstrated in their understanding of language, as they begin to use words like 'mine' and 'me' to express their individuality.

True Signup and view all the answers

Social adaptation skills, such as sharing and taking turns, are innate abilities that do not require any conscious effort from young children.

False Signup and view all the answers

Impulse control is fully developed in infants, which is why they can easily regulate their emotional outbursts.

False Signup and view all the answers

The development of emotional regulation is solely dependent on the child's innate temperament and has little to do with their environment.

False Signup and view all the answers

The ability to understand and respond to others' emotions, also known as emotional intelligence, is not a significant factor in the development of social adaptation skills.

False Signup and view all the answers

The development of executive function is largely unaffected by the child's ability to regulate their emotions.

False Signup and view all the answers

A child's ability to understand and follow rules is a clear indication of their self-awareness and ability to regulate their behavior.

True Signup and view all the answers

The concept of 'scaffolding' in child development refers to the gradual process of supporting a child's emotional development, but it has no impact on their behavior regulation.

False Signup and view all the answers

Learning to share toys is a simple social skill that is mastered by most toddlers without the need for adult intervention.

False Signup and view all the answers

Based on the information provided, what is one potential way a child's knowledge in a specific domain can influence their cognitive development?

Extensive domain knowledge may lead to a child having a more advanced understanding of logic within that specific domain compared to other areas. Signup and view all the answers

According to the passage, how does a child's domain-specific knowledge potentially impact their problem-solving abilities?

Children with extensive knowledge in a domain are more likely to be able to identify relevant features and relationships within a problem, aiding in their problem-solving skills. Signup and view all the answers

The passage argues that logical thinking is at least somewhat domain-specific. Which of the following statements best supports this claim?

A child who is knowledgeable about dinosaurs may reason more effectively about dinosaur-related problems than about other topics. Signup and view all the answers

According to the passage, how does Piaget's stage theory differ from the idea of domain-specific cognitive development?

A child who is an expert chess player shows superior logical reasoning in chess-related problems compared to other problem-solving tasks. Signup and view all the answers

The passage suggests that a child's cognitive abilities can develop differently depending on their specific interests. Which of the following statements best reflects this idea?

A child who loves experimenting with chemistry sets might develop advanced reasoning skills in chemistry, but not necessarily in other areas. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of a child who has a lot of domain knowledge?

They are better at identifying the important features of a problem within that domain. Signup and view all the answers

According to the information processing approach, what is an important aspect of characterizing children's cognitive abilities?

The integration of research from different traditions. Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about the cognitive abilities of children like Kim, Jeanine, and Serena who are familiar with using computers?

They may have an advanced ability to think logically about problems within the domain of technology. Signup and view all the answers

What is a common characteristic of children who have a lot of domain knowledge in a particular area?

They have a better ability to identify the important features of a problem within that domain. Signup and view all the answers

How does the information processing approach characterize children's cognitive abilities?

As at least somewhat domain specific and influenced by experience. Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about the relationship between domain knowledge and logical thinking?

Domain knowledge can enhance logical thinking within that domain. Signup and view all the answers

According to the passage, what is a key aspect of characterizing children's cognitive abilities?

The integration of research from different traditions. Signup and view all the answers

What is an important consideration when examining children's cognitive abilities?

Integrating research from multiple traditions and considering individual differences. Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about children who have advanced abilities in a particular domain?

They may have an advanced ability to think logically about problems within that domain. Signup and view all the answers

According to the passage, what is a key aspect of children's cognitive abilities in the middle years?

The integration of research from different traditions. Signup and view all the answers

Early video viewing has universally been linked to attention problems in children.

False Signup and view all the answers

Interactions with responsive adults significantly aid in the development of language skills in children.

True Signup and view all the answers

Children's play typically includes activities that hinder their understanding of spatial and physical knowledge.

False Signup and view all the answers

The presence of a television in the background can enhance the play experiences of babies.

False Signup and view all the answers

Providing children with opportunities to become computer literate is not considered an important educational goal.

False Signup and view all the answers

Self-regulation in children is positively influenced by engaging activities with interactive media.

False Signup and view all the answers

Cross-cultural differences in socialization practices are irrelevant to the development of cognitive skills.

False Signup and view all the answers

Babies' attention to screens can lead to longer, uninterrupted play sessions.

False Signup and view all the answers

Effective information processing in children is facilitated by interactions with sensitive adults.

True Signup and view all the answers

The exploration of objects through hands-on play is irrelevant to learning about emotions.

False Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Erikson's Personality Theory

Erikson's theory focuses on psychosocial aspects of personality development, emphasizing feelings and attitudes towards self and others.
The theory consists of eight psychosocial stages, with the first five corresponding to Freud's psychosexual stages, and the last three being adult life stages.
Each stage involves a different "crisis" or developmental task, initiated by biological maturation or decline, cognitive changes, and changes in others' attitudes and expectations.

Stages of Development

Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy, 0-1 year)
- Infants are "incorporative" and rely on caregivers to meet their needs.
- Responsive caregivers help infants develop trust, feel valued, and view the world as a safe place.

Key Concepts

Autonomy: Developed sense of autonomy emerges when others demonstrate sensitivity and responsiveness to individual needs.
Initiative: Emerging sense of initiative is characterized by attitudes towards self and others that emerge together.
Balance between positive and negative feelings: Successful resolution of a crisis involves finding the right balance between positive and negative feelings, with positive outweighing negative.
Success and Failure: Successful resolution of a crisis at one stage helps smooth the way for successful resolutions of future crises, while unsuccessful resolution can stall progress and lead to maladaptive behavior.

Erikson's Personality Theory

Erikson's theory focuses on psychosocial aspects of personality development, emphasizing feelings and attitudes towards self and others.
The theory consists of eight psychosocial stages, with the first five corresponding to Freud's psychosexual stages, and the last three being adult life stages.
Each stage involves a different "crisis" or developmental task, initiated by biological maturation or decline, cognitive changes, and changes in others' attitudes and expectations.

Stages of Development

Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy, 0-1 year)
- Infants are "incorporative" and rely on caregivers to meet their needs.
- Responsive caregivers help infants develop trust, feel valued, and view the world as a safe place.

Key Concepts

Autonomy: Developed sense of autonomy emerges when others demonstrate sensitivity and responsiveness to individual needs.
Initiative: Emerging sense of initiative is characterized by attitudes towards self and others that emerge together.
Balance between positive and negative feelings: Successful resolution of a crisis involves finding the right balance between positive and negative feelings, with positive outweighing negative.
Success and Failure: Successful resolution of a crisis at one stage helps smooth the way for successful resolutions of future crises, while unsuccessful resolution can stall progress and lead to maladaptive behavior.

Erikson's Psychosocial Development Theory

Others' sensitivity and responsiveness to children's needs create a context for positive psychosocial development
A developed sense of autonomy and an emerging sense of initiative are demonstrated through the individual's needs
Attitudes toward self and others emerge together, with trust in others also valuing the self
Every psychosocial crisis involves finding a balance between positive and negative feelings, with the positive outweighing the negative
Successful resolution of a crisis at one stage helps smooth the way for successful resolutions of future crises
Unsuccessful resolution at an earlier stage may stall progress and make maladaptive behavior more likely

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development

Trust vs. Mistrust: Infancy (0-1 year)
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: Toddlerhood (1-3 years)
Initiative vs. Guilt: Preschool age (3-6 years)
Industry vs. Inferiority: School age (6-12 years)
Identity vs. Role Confusion: Adolescence (12-18 years)
Intimacy vs. Isolation: Young adulthood (18-40 years)
Generativity vs. Stagnation: Middle adulthood (40-65 years)
Integrity vs. Despair: Late adulthood (65+ years)

Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory

Jean Piaget's theory was influenced by Jean-Jacques Rousseau's philosophy of children's reasoning and understanding
Piaget outlined four stages in the development of cognition, especially logical thinking
Normal adults are capable of thinking logically about both concrete and abstract contents
The first sensorimotor stage lasts for about two years, is characterized by an absence of representational thought
Babies cannot yet symbolically represent their experiences and therefore cannot reflect on them
Cognitive development results from the accrual of independent changes in many different domains of thought and skill

Classic Theories of Development

Address a set of core issues, such as:
- Is developmental change qualitative (stagelike) or quantitative (incremental)?
- Are some developments restricted to certain critical periods in the life cycle, or are changes in brain and behavior possible at any time?
- Are there important continuities across the life span, or is everything in flux?
- Are people actively influencing the course and nature of their own development, or are they passive products of other forces?
- Which is more important in causing developmental change, nature (heredity) or nurture (environment)?
- Are there universal developmental trajectories, processes, and changes that are the same in all cultures and historical periods?

Environmental Influences on Fetal Development

The environment plays an equal role with genes in human development from conception onwards.
The earliest environment includes the mother's womb and the physical, social, and cultural context outside of the womb.

Teratogens

Environmental substances and agents that can harm the developing fetus are called teratogens.
The term "teratogen" comes from the Greek and means "monstrosity making".
Teratogens can cross the placental barrier from mother to fetus and include:
- Certain drugs and chemicals
- Disease organisms
- Radioactivity

How Teratogens Affect the Fetus

The placenta allows nutrients and oxygen from the mother's blood to pass into the baby's blood, but usually keeps the two circulatory systems separate.
Teratogens can cause harm to the developing fetus, including:
- Brain abnormalities
- Distinct facial structures
- Cardiac, skeletal, and urogenital abnormalities
- Growth deficiencies
- Intellectual deficits and learning disorders

Examples of Teratogens

Alcohol

Has been called "the most prominent behavioral teratogen in the world" due to its widespread use.
Can cause:
- Brain abnormalities
- Distinct facial structure
- Cardiac, skeletal, and urogenital abnormalities
- Growth deficiencies
- Broad intellectual deficits and learning disorders
- Social perception problems
- Language deficits

Tobacco

Can cause:
- Low birth weight due to constricted blood flow and reduced nutrition
- Prematurity
- Respiratory problems
- Cleft palate
- Learning problems
- Hyperactivity
- Disruptive behavior
- Chronic tic disorders

Cocaine

Can cause:
- Prematurity or stillbirth
- Low birth weight
- Drug withdrawal after birth, including irritability, restlessness, and tremors
- Medically and psychologically fragile
- Higher rates of later learning problems and ADHD
- Negative temperamental traits

Marijuana

Can cause:
- Moderations in brain development and function, making the child more vulnerable to postnatal stresses
- Potential for cognitive and emotional problems
- Enhancement of potential for cognitive and emotional problems

Environmental Influences on Fetal Development

The environment plays an equal role with genes in human development from conception onwards.
The earliest environment includes the mother's womb and the physical, social, and cultural context outside of the womb.

Teratogens

Environmental substances and agents that can harm the developing fetus are called teratogens.
The term "teratogen" comes from the Greek and means "monstrosity making".
Teratogens can cross the placental barrier from mother to fetus and include:
- Certain drugs and chemicals
- Disease organisms
- Radioactivity

How Teratogens Affect the Fetus

The placenta allows nutrients and oxygen from the mother's blood to pass into the baby's blood, but usually keeps the two circulatory systems separate.
Teratogens can cause harm to the developing fetus, including:
- Brain abnormalities
- Distinct facial structures
- Cardiac, skeletal, and urogenital abnormalities
- Growth deficiencies
- Intellectual deficits and learning disorders

Examples of Teratogens

Alcohol

Has been called "the most prominent behavioral teratogen in the world" due to its widespread use.
Can cause:
- Brain abnormalities
- Distinct facial structure
- Cardiac, skeletal, and urogenital abnormalities
- Growth deficiencies
- Broad intellectual deficits and learning disorders
- Social perception problems
- Language deficits

Tobacco

Can cause:
- Low birth weight due to constricted blood flow and reduced nutrition
- Prematurity
- Respiratory problems
- Cleft palate
- Learning problems
- Hyperactivity
- Disruptive behavior
- Chronic tic disorders

Cocaine

Can cause:
- Prematurity or stillbirth
- Low birth weight
- Drug withdrawal after birth, including irritability, restlessness, and tremors
- Medically and psychologically fragile
- Higher rates of later learning problems and ADHD
- Negative temperamental traits

Marijuana

Can cause:
- Moderations in brain development and function, making the child more vulnerable to postnatal stresses
- Potential for cognitive and emotional problems
- Enhancement of potential for cognitive and emotional problems

Environmental Influences on Fetal Development

The environment plays an equal role with genes in human development from conception onwards.
The earliest environment includes the mother's womb and the physical, social, and cultural context outside of the womb.

Teratogens

Environmental substances and agents that can harm the developing fetus are called teratogens.
The term "teratogen" comes from the Greek and means "monstrosity making".
Teratogens can cross the placental barrier from mother to fetus and include:
- Certain drugs and chemicals
- Disease organisms
- Radioactivity

How Teratogens Affect the Fetus

The placenta allows nutrients and oxygen from the mother's blood to pass into the baby's blood, but usually keeps the two circulatory systems separate.
Teratogens can cause harm to the developing fetus, including:
- Brain abnormalities
- Distinct facial structures
- Cardiac, skeletal, and urogenital abnormalities
- Growth deficiencies
- Intellectual deficits and learning disorders

Examples of Teratogens

Alcohol

Has been called "the most prominent behavioral teratogen in the world" due to its widespread use.
Can cause:
- Brain abnormalities
- Distinct facial structure
- Cardiac, skeletal, and urogenital abnormalities
- Growth deficiencies
- Broad intellectual deficits and learning disorders
- Social perception problems
- Language deficits

Tobacco

Can cause:
- Low birth weight due to constricted blood flow and reduced nutrition
- Prematurity
- Respiratory problems
- Cleft palate
- Learning problems
- Hyperactivity
- Disruptive behavior
- Chronic tic disorders

Cocaine

Can cause:
- Prematurity or stillbirth
- Low birth weight
- Drug withdrawal after birth, including irritability, restlessness, and tremors
- Medically and psychologically fragile
- Higher rates of later learning problems and ADHD
- Negative temperamental traits

Marijuana

Can cause:
- Moderations in brain development and function, making the child more vulnerable to postnatal stresses
- Potential for cognitive and emotional problems
- Enhancement of potential for cognitive and emotional problems

Object Permanence and Representational Thinking

Babies as young as 2 1/2 months old understand object permanence, showing surprise when a doll reappears in a different location without being visible in the space between screens.
This suggests that young babies have some sense that objects continue to exist when they cannot be seen.
Researchers, such as Baillargeon and her colleagues, have created controversy about when representational thinking begins and what the nature of early representations might be.

Symbols and Representation

Words and props used in pretend play are symbols that represent something else, requiring children to mentally represent the things being symbolized.
As babies' representational skills grow, especially over the second year, language skills and pretend play begin to blossom.

Cognitive Development in Early Years

Piaget celebrated the growth of thinking skills in the preschool years, but argued that young children are "preoperational" or prelogical.
Children's early thought tends to be slow and centered on one salient feature of an experience or event at a time, a tendency called centration.
As children interact with the world and practice representing events, their thinking speeds up and becomes more efficient, eventually allowing them to "decenter" and consider multiple pieces of information simultaneously.

Mental Activity in Infancy

Piaget believed that mental activity in early infancy is sensorimotor, depending on sensory input and ending in motor output.
Eventually, these early organizational patterns are transformed into mental images and other products that support "true" representational thought.
Other theorists, such as Allen and Bickhard, have described similar ideas, while others argue that there is "something more" to infants' earliest mental activity.

Development of Thinking and Conceptual Skills

Thinking and conceptual developments, such as object permanence, gradually improve through the first and second years of life and beyond.
Studies of infant memory and babies' abilities to plan their actions indicate the same kind of gradual development.

Imitation and Recall

At 4 months, babies can imitate actions like clapping hands, but this doesn't necessarily indicate recall.
Deferred imitation, where there is a time delay between observation and imitation, is necessary to demonstrate the ability to form mental representations of previously experienced events.
According to Piaget, deferred imitation begins around 16 months, but more precise testing methods show that infants as young as 9 months can recall actions they witnessed previously.

Recall Development

In one study, 9-month-old babies who witnessed button-pushing the previous day were more likely to push the button themselves than those who hadn't seen it before.
Deferred imitation improves dramatically over the second year, with 20-month-olds able to imitate more complex sequences up to 12 months later.
Recall enables observational learning, or modeling, and supports language learning.

Object Permanence and Separation Anxiety

Around 8 months, babies begin searching for hidden objects, indicating they believe objects are permanent and can recall hidden objects.
Separation anxiety starts around 8 months, where babies watch for missing parents, cry, and become distressed when left with another caregiver.

Recognition and Habituation

Recognition is the feeling of familiarity when an experience is repeated, while recall is remembering an experience when it's not being repeated.
How quickly babies habituate to a new stimulus is an indicator of later intelligence and academic test performance.
Recognition speed by 4 months is an indicator of the efficiency of later information processing.

Imitation and Recall

At 4 months, babies can imitate actions like clapping hands, but this doesn't necessarily indicate recall.
Deferred imitation, where there is a time delay between observation and imitation, is necessary to demonstrate the ability to form mental representations of previously experienced events.
According to Piaget, deferred imitation begins around 16 months, but more precise testing methods show that infants as young as 9 months can recall actions they witnessed previously.

Recall Development

In one study, 9-month-old babies who witnessed button-pushing the previous day were more likely to push the button themselves than those who hadn't seen it before.
Deferred imitation improves dramatically over the second year, with 20-month-olds able to imitate more complex sequences up to 12 months later.
Recall enables observational learning, or modeling, and supports language learning.

Object Permanence and Separation Anxiety

Around 8 months, babies begin searching for hidden objects, indicating they believe objects are permanent and can recall hidden objects.
Separation anxiety starts around 8 months, where babies watch for missing parents, cry, and become distressed when left with another caregiver.

Recognition and Habituation

Recognition is the feeling of familiarity when an experience is repeated, while recall is remembering an experience when it's not being repeated.
How quickly babies habituate to a new stimulus is an indicator of later intelligence and academic test performance.
Recognition speed by 4 months is an indicator of the efficiency of later information processing.

Oxytocin and Dopamine in Caregiving

Infant behaviors like crying, smiling, and vocalizing stimulate the release of oxytocin in caregivers, which triggers increases in dopamine, a neurotransmitter associated with reward.
The combination of oxytocin and dopamine makes caregiving behaviors more rewarding for parents.

Brain Development and Caregiving

Environmental factors, including caregiving, play a significant role in shaping brain structures and functions before and after birth.
Research by Laurent et al. (2016) found that sensitive mothers have children with faster cortisol response normalization when frightened.
Cicchetti et al. (2016) discovered that infants of mothers with major depressive disorder show different DNA methylation patterns, suggesting that caregiving quality affects brain development.

Theories of Attachment and Caregiving

John Bowlby (1969/1982, 1973, 1980) and Erik Erikson (1950/1963) propose that early relationships with caregivers shape an infant's working model of self and others.
This working model influences future interactions, self-concept, and outlook on life.
Erikson suggests that timely, sensitive, and consistent caregiving enables a child to form basic trust, seeing others as dependable and trustworthy.

Importance of Sensitive Caregiving

Sensitive caregiving is linked to infant security and attachment quality across cultures and socioeconomic backgrounds.
Key ingredients of sensitive caregiving include:
- Prompt responsiveness to distress
- Interactional synchrony
- Affectional warmth and positivity
- Moderately stimulating but nonintrusive interactive involvement with the infant

Oxytocin and Dopamine in Caregiving

Infant behaviors like crying, smiling, and vocalizing stimulate the release of oxytocin in caregivers, which triggers increases in dopamine, a neurotransmitter associated with reward.
The combination of oxytocin and dopamine makes caregiving behaviors more rewarding for parents.

Brain Development and Caregiving

Environmental factors, including caregiving, play a significant role in shaping brain structures and functions before and after birth.
Research by Laurent et al. (2016) found that sensitive mothers have children with faster cortisol response normalization when frightened.
Cicchetti et al. (2016) discovered that infants of mothers with major depressive disorder show different DNA methylation patterns, suggesting that caregiving quality affects brain development.

Theories of Attachment and Caregiving

John Bowlby (1969/1982, 1973, 1980) and Erik Erikson (1950/1963) propose that early relationships with caregivers shape an infant's working model of self and others.
This working model influences future interactions, self-concept, and outlook on life.
Erikson suggests that timely, sensitive, and consistent caregiving enables a child to form basic trust, seeing others as dependable and trustworthy.

Importance of Sensitive Caregiving

Sensitive caregiving is linked to infant security and attachment quality across cultures and socioeconomic backgrounds.
Key ingredients of sensitive caregiving include:
- Prompt responsiveness to distress
- Interactional synchrony
- Affectional warmth and positivity
- Moderately stimulating but nonintrusive interactive involvement with the infant

Quality of Caregiving

The quality of caregiving during the baby's first year is crucial for the development of attachment.
Ainsworth's study (1978) observed 26 babies and mothers in their homes at regular intervals from birth to establish the importance of caregiving quality.

Securely Attached Infants

Mothers of securely attached infants respond promptly and consistently to crying during the first year.
They handle their infants with sensitivity and hold them tenderly and often.
Their face-to-face interactions are responsive to the baby's signals, which creates a sense of security or trust.

Insecurely Attached Infants

Mothers of insecurely attached infants are insensitive to their infant's needs in various ways.
The mothers of ambivalent babies are affectionate but awkward in holding and inconsistent in responding to crying.
They often fail to respond to their babies' signals, leading to insecurity.

Avoidant Babies

Mothers of avoidant babies actively avoid holding their babies.
When separated from their mothers, avoidant babies show distress, crying, and trying to go after them.
However, they greet their mothers happily on return and seek comfort, using them as a secure base to explore the world.

Anxious Ambivalent Babies

Anxious ambivalent babies (10% of samples) seem stressed, even in the initial episode, and are highly distressed when separated from their mothers.
They often act angry or listless in response to their mothers' efforts to comfort them.
They seem preoccupied with their mothers and rarely return to exploration after a separation.

Attachment Quality

Mary Ainsworth's study (1978) found that infants form different kinds of attachments to their primary caregivers.
The "strange situation test" was developed to measure attachment, involving 12-month-olds and their mothers in a series of eight 3-minute episodes.
The test introduced changes in the social situation, some of which were likely to be stressful to an infant.

Types of Attachment

Ainsworth identified three patterns of infant response, now considered indicative of three different kinds of infant attachment:
- Securely attached
- Anxious ambivalent
- Avoidant
A fourth category was later identified by Main and Soloman (1990).

Self-Regulation of Behavior and Emotion

Mastering behavior and emotions is a complex, long-term process that begins in early childhood.
Self-regulation involves the movement from dyadic emotion regulation to self-regulation of behavior and emotion.

Emotional Regulation

Emotional regulation is essential for controlling behaviors and involves establishing physiological balance or control over fluctuating levels of arousal.
Infants experience affective tension when their homeostatic "set point" is altered, motivating them to return to a balanced state.
Emotional regulation is critical for success in all aspects of life, including relationships, learning, and achievement.

Development of Self-Regulation

Self-regulation becomes more complex as children grow, involving the management of emotional reactions and actions in response to changes in the physical and social environment.
Children begin to develop self-regulation skills through interactions with caregivers, who provide critical ingredients for the development of the affect-regulation system.

Behavior Regulation

Behavior regulation emerges with two major cognitive and emotional advances: representational thought and associated abilities, and emotional response to wrongdoing.
By 9-10 months, babies show some capacity for representational thought, and by 18 months, their representational thought is progressing rapidly, supporting language development.
Language is important for self-regulation, as toddlers begin to understand and produce language, including parents' requests and rules.

Importance of Caregiving

Good caregiving in infancy and beyond involves scaffolding the child's developing ability to regulate both emotional and behavioral expression.
Caregivers provide critical ingredients for the development of the affect-regulation system, helping children regain affective control during periods of high arousal or distress.

Self-Regulation of Behavior and Emotion

Mastering behavior and emotions is a complex, long-term process that begins in early childhood.
Self-regulation involves the movement from dyadic emotion regulation to self-regulation of behavior and emotion.

Emotional Regulation

Emotional regulation is essential for controlling behaviors and involves establishing physiological balance or control over fluctuating levels of arousal.
Infants experience affective tension when their homeostatic "set point" is altered, motivating them to return to a balanced state.
Emotional regulation is critical for success in all aspects of life, including relationships, learning, and achievement.

Development of Self-Regulation

Self-regulation becomes more complex as children grow, involving the management of emotional reactions and actions in response to changes in the physical and social environment.
Children begin to develop self-regulation skills through interactions with caregivers, who provide critical ingredients for the development of the affect-regulation system.

Behavior Regulation

Behavior regulation emerges with two major cognitive and emotional advances: representational thought and associated abilities, and emotional response to wrongdoing.
By 9-10 months, babies show some capacity for representational thought, and by 18 months, their representational thought is progressing rapidly, supporting language development.
Language is important for self-regulation, as toddlers begin to understand and produce language, including parents' requests and rules.

Importance of Caregiving

Good caregiving in infancy and beyond involves scaffolding the child's developing ability to regulate both emotional and behavioral expression.
Caregivers provide critical ingredients for the development of the affect-regulation system, helping children regain affective control during periods of high arousal or distress.

Self-Regulation of Behavior and Emotion

Mastering behavior and emotions is a complex, long-term process that begins in early childhood.
Self-regulation involves the movement from dyadic emotion regulation to self-regulation of behavior and emotion.

Emotional Regulation

Emotional regulation is essential for controlling behaviors and involves establishing physiological balance or control over fluctuating levels of arousal.
Infants experience affective tension when their homeostatic "set point" is altered, motivating them to return to a balanced state.
Emotional regulation is critical for success in all aspects of life, including relationships, learning, and achievement.

Development of Self-Regulation

Self-regulation becomes more complex as children grow, involving the management of emotional reactions and actions in response to changes in the physical and social environment.
Children begin to develop self-regulation skills through interactions with caregivers, who provide critical ingredients for the development of the affect-regulation system.

Behavior Regulation

Behavior regulation emerges with two major cognitive and emotional advances: representational thought and associated abilities, and emotional response to wrongdoing.
By 9-10 months, babies show some capacity for representational thought, and by 18 months, their representational thought is progressing rapidly, supporting language development.
Language is important for self-regulation, as toddlers begin to understand and produce language, including parents' requests and rules.

Importance of Caregiving

Good caregiving in infancy and beyond involves scaffolding the child's developing ability to regulate both emotional and behavioral expression.
Caregivers provide critical ingredients for the development of the affect-regulation system, helping children regain affective control during periods of high arousal or distress.

Executive Functions in Children

Children from Asian countries (e.g., Japan, China) develop executive functions more rapidly than children from Western countries (e.g., Great Britain, United States) during early childhood and adolescence.
Despite this difference, adults from different countries eventually achieve similar levels of performance on executive function tasks.
Culturally based differences in socialization practices, such as Asian parents emphasizing the inhibition of desires to conform to collectivist norms, may contribute to these differences.

Working Memory and Information Processing

Working memory is a crucial executive function that holds and processes information, enabling attention, planning, problem-solving, and learning.
Information processing occurs at two levels: automatic, intuitive, and unintentional (bottom-up processes) and controlled, intentional, and effortful (top-down processes).
Working memory plays a central role in executive functions, as depicted in Figure 6.2.

ADHD and Brain Development

ADHD may comprise more than one disorder, with different frontal brain areas affected in different types.
Many children not diagnosed with ADHD exhibit behavioral differences, such as better or worse attentional control, impulsivity, or activity level, which may be related to brain development.
Research suggests that ADHD lies on a continuous distribution of symptoms and cognitive impairments, with brain changes occurring at a slower rate in more active and impulsive children.

Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

Children's cognitive development is characterized by unevenness, both between and within individuals, during middle childhood.
Domain-specific knowledge (e.g., dinosaurs, chess) influences logical thinking and problem-solving abilities within that domain.
Logical thinking is at least somewhat domain-specific, rather than strictly domain general and determined by stage of development, as Piaget's stage theory implies.

Information Processing Approach

The information processing approach examines cognitive development, including conceptual change, logical reasoning, memory, and executive functions, in middle childhood.
Research combining insights from Piagetian, information processing, and other research traditions provides a comprehensive understanding of children's cognitive abilities.

Executive Functions in Children

Children from Asian countries (e.g., Japan, China) develop executive functions more rapidly than children from Western countries (e.g., Great Britain, United States) during early childhood and adolescence.
Despite this difference, adults from different countries eventually achieve similar levels of performance on executive function tasks.
Culturally based differences in socialization practices, such as Asian parents emphasizing the inhibition of desires to conform to collectivist norms, may contribute to these differences.

Working Memory and Information Processing

Working memory is a crucial executive function that holds and processes information, enabling attention, planning, problem-solving, and learning.
Information processing occurs at two levels: automatic, intuitive, and unintentional (bottom-up processes) and controlled, intentional, and effortful (top-down processes).
Working memory plays a central role in executive functions, as depicted in Figure 6.2.

ADHD and Brain Development

ADHD may comprise more than one disorder, with different frontal brain areas affected in different types.
Many children not diagnosed with ADHD exhibit behavioral differences, such as better or worse attentional control, impulsivity, or activity level, which may be related to brain development.
Research suggests that ADHD lies on a continuous distribution of symptoms and cognitive impairments, with brain changes occurring at a slower rate in more active and impulsive children.

Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

Children's cognitive development is characterized by unevenness, both between and within individuals, during middle childhood.
Domain-specific knowledge (e.g., dinosaurs, chess) influences logical thinking and problem-solving abilities within that domain.
Logical thinking is at least somewhat domain-specific, rather than strictly domain general and determined by stage of development, as Piaget's stage theory implies.

Information Processing Approach

The information processing approach examines cognitive development, including conceptual change, logical reasoning, memory, and executive functions, in middle childhood.
Research combining insights from Piagetian, information processing, and other research traditions provides a comprehensive understanding of children's cognitive abilities.

Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

Children can be given complex responsibilities, participate in discussions, and appreciate humor due to cognitive developments.
Jean Piaget's theory describes cognitive change in middle childhood as the emergence of concrete operations.

Piaget's View

Knowledge is constructed; it is not just "stamped in" by experience or teaching.
Children assimilate new information, interpreting it in ways that fit their existing knowledge or thinking structure.
They accommodate or adjust their existing knowledge structures simultaneously.

Media and Cognitive Development

Exposure to violent content can promote aggressive behavior in individuals prone to aggression.
Exposure to explicit sexual content, sexism, and commercial propaganda can affect children's beliefs and values about sexual behavior, gender, and what is important in life.
Adults can mitigate the negative effects of media by helping children choose content, joining them in media use, and discussing and interpreting media messages.

Educational Programs and Media

Educational programs can mimic the pacing of parentese, making them more effective for learning.
Interactions with sensitive, responsive adults are central to acquiring language skills, building event and autobiographical memories, and learning about emotions, self, and others.

Technology and Cognitive Development

Interactive media, such as computers and gaming devices, can displace time that could be spent on critical activities for cognitive development.
There is a need for skilled adult "coaches" who can guide children in using technology effectively.
Learning to use basic computer software and the Internet as tools for acquiring, organizing, storing, and communicating information is an important educational goal.

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Description

This quiz assesses understanding of how caregivers' responsiveness affects children's psychosocial development, including autonomy and initiative. It covers attitudes towards self and others in childhood development.