Psychology History and Structuralism

Introduction to Psychology

• Structuralism: Originates from the Latin word for knowledge; focuses on breaking down mental processes into their components.
• 1879: Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, marking psychology's emergence as a scientific discipline.

Early Psychological Theories

• Functionalism (William James): Emphasizes the purpose of consciousness and mental processes, arguing they cannot be merely broken down into parts.
• Behaviorism (B.F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov): Concentrates solely on observable behavior, positing that all behavior is shaped by environmental influences. Key concept: operant conditioning, where behaviors are learned through rewards and punishments.

Key Experiments

• Little Albert Experiment (John B. Watson): Demonstrates classical conditioning in humans, illustrating how emotional responses can be conditioned.
• Extrasensory Perception (ESP): Claims that individuals can receive information without sensory input, proposing phenomena like telepathy and clairvoyance.

Psychological Research Methodology

• Hypothesis: A predictive statement that guides research; must be capable of being tested.
• Scientific Methods: Utilize various methods with defined strengths and weaknesses to gather evidence, leading to conclusions.
• Replicability: The study's methods must allow others to replicate the research, reinforcing credibility.

Evaluating Scientific Theory

• Theory: A well-supported explanation that integrates multiple observations and makes predictions.
• Falsifiability: The ability for a theory to be disproven if evidence contradicts it; essential for scientific validity.
• Burden of Proof: Researchers must provide substantial evidence to support claims, ensuring claims are compelling.

Psychological Constructs

• Operational Definition: Clearly defines variables based on how they are measured or produced in research, ensuring clarity in communication and understanding.
• Nostradamus: Historical figure known for his ambiguous predictions that people reinterpret post-event, demonstrating how beliefs can be shaped by hindsight.

Research Samples

• Convenience Sample: Acquiring subjects based on ease of access, which may not represent the broader population.
• Representative Sample: Participants reflect the demographics of the larger population by matching key characteristics in selection.
• Random Sample: Each individual has an equal chance of selection, enhancing the study's validity.
• Cross-Cultural Sample: Involves diverse groups from different cultural backgrounds, presenting challenges in obtaining reliable data.

Bias in Research

• Experimenter Bias: Potential distortion in either methodology or results influenced by the researcher's expectations.
• Subject Bias: Participants may modify their behavior due to awareness of being observed (Hawthorne effect).

Research Designs

• Naturalistic Observation: Observation of individuals in their natural environment to study behaviors as they occur.
• Case History: Comprehensive exploration of an individual’s life, focusing on medical, psychological, and historical contexts to better understand unique circumstances.