Psychology Exam 2 Flashcards

Questions and Answers

Dante is most likely to want to help Jed study after he has:

Unsuccessfully tried to repair a flat tire on his car.

Heard that a friend was involved in an automobile accident.

Received an A on his psychology test. (correct)

Been caught cheating on a math test.

During the last 50 years, the buying power of Americans has and their self-reported personal happiness has .

increased; remained almost unchanged

People are likely to experience higher levels of ________ if they seek to contribute to their communities rather than simply strive for personal wealth and power.

Facial feedback

Relative deprivation

Catharsis

Subjective well-being (correct)

Relative deprivation refers to the tendency for our personal happiness to be heavily influenced by:

Others' success Signup and view all the answers

An understanding of how stress affects our resistance to disease is the central focus of the field of:

Psychoneuroimmunology Signup and view all the answers

Research on stressful life events indicates that:

Those who have been recently widowed, fired, or divorced are more vulnerable to disease. Signup and view all the answers

Avoiding stress is LEAST likely to inhibit the progression of ________ in humans.

Advanced cancer Signup and view all the answers

The three successive phases of the general adaptation syndrome are:

Alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion. Signup and view all the answers

A Harvard School of Public Health research team studied men over a 10-year period. They found that were more than twice as likely as to develop heart disease.

Pessimists; optimists Signup and view all the answers

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor is known as:

Problem-focused coping Signup and view all the answers

To alleviate the stress of losing her job, Alicia enrolled in a work retraining program. Her behavior best illustrates:

Problem-focused coping Signup and view all the answers

Vanessa alleviated stress by engaging in her work more actively after her husband's death. Her response best illustrates:

Emotion-focused coping Signup and view all the answers

Elderly nursing home residents tend to decline faster and die sooner without:

Perceived control Signup and view all the answers

Alex experiences little stress because he expects things to work out well. This best illustrates the value of:

Optimism Signup and view all the answers

Spearman's g factor refers to:

A general intelligence that underlies successful performance on various tasks Signup and view all the answers

Who would have been most enthusiastic about a single intelligence test score as an index of individual mental capacities?

Charles Spearman Signup and view all the answers

Professor Jenkins believes intelligence cannot be measured by a single score, but rather through seven primary abilities. His view closely resembles that of:

L.L. Thurstone Signup and view all the answers

People with savant syndrome are best described as those who demonstrate:

An exceptional specific skill Signup and view all the answers

Robert Sternberg distinguished among analytical, practical, and ________ intelligence.

Creative Signup and view all the answers

Which person best illustrates Sternberg's concept of practical intelligence?

Shelley, a newspaper reporter with a large network of sources Signup and view all the answers

When Professor McGuire asks students to answer questions, she quickly tells from their expressions whether they are happy to participate. Her skill best illustrates:

Emotional intelligence Signup and view all the answers

Binet and Simon designed a test to:

Identify children likely to have difficulty in school Signup and view all the answers

The distribution of intelligence test scores should form a bell-shaped pattern, called:

A normal curve Signup and view all the answers

To assess mental age, Binet and Simon measured children's:

Reasoning skills Signup and view all the answers

If a test is standardized, this means that:

A person's performance can be compared with a representative group Signup and view all the answers

If a road test for a driver's license adequately samples tasks a driver faces, the test is said to have:

Content validity Signup and view all the answers

For the original version of the Stanford-Binet, IQ was defined as:

Mental age divided by chronological age and multiplied by 100 Signup and view all the answers

Achievement tests are designed to:

Assess learned knowledge or skills Signup and view all the answers

In addition to an overall intelligence score, the WAIS provides separate scores for skills such as:

Working memory Signup and view all the answers

Block design puzzles are used in one of the subtests of the:

WAIS Signup and view all the answers

A test that measures what it is supposed to is said to have a high degree of:

Validity Signup and view all the answers

It would be reasonable to suggest that the Flynn effect is due in part to:

Increasingly improved childhood health Signup and view all the answers

If a test yields consistent results every time it is used, it has a high degree of:

Reliability Signup and view all the answers

Your psychology professor announced that the next test will assess understanding of sensation and perception. If the test questions relate to other topics, you would be most concerned about the ________ of the test.

Validity Signup and view all the answers

Cross-sectional research indicated that during early and middle adulthood, aging is associated with levels of intelligence. Longitudinal research indicated that during this period, aging is associated with levels of intelligence.

Declining; stable Signup and view all the answers

Ian Deary and his colleagues retested 80-year-old Scots using an intelligence test they had taken as 11-year-olds. The procedure used in this research best illustrates a:

Longitudinal study Signup and view all the answers

Professor Juarez intends to measure the difference in spatial ability between people of different ages. He will be conducting:

A cross-sectional study Signup and view all the answers

In terms of age, ____ intelligence peaks in the 20s and _ intelligence increases through the 70s.

fluid; crystallized Signup and view all the answers

The type of basic intelligence that makes learning quick and thorough is referred to as ______ intelligence.

fluid Signup and view all the answers

Psychologists define learning as the process of?

Acquiring new information or relatively enduring behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

The acquisition of mental information by observing events, watching others, or through language is called?

Cognitive learning. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following processes accounts for Natacha becoming fearful every time she smells rubbing alcohol?

Classical conditioning. Signup and view all the answers

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning is called a(n)?

Neutral stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

In Pavlov's experiments, what was the unconditioned stimulus (US)?

The presentation of food in the dog's mouth. Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for a dog salivating to the sound of a tone that has been associated with food?

Conditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

The stage in which a flatworm's contraction response to light is established is called?

Acquisition. Signup and view all the answers

A geometric figure is most likely to trigger sexual arousal if presented shortly?

Before an appropriate unconditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

Makayla developed an intense fear of flying five years ago. What indicates her fear has undergone?

Extinction. Signup and view all the answers

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time lapse is called?

Spontaneous recovery. Signup and view all the answers

Toddlers taught to fear speeding cars may also begin to fear speeding trucks and motorcycles. This best illustrates?

Generalization. Signup and view all the answers

After learning to fear a white rat, Little Albert responded with fear to the sight of a rabbit. This illustrates the process of?

Generalization. Signup and view all the answers

Laurie's thumbsucking has become habitual because she feels less anxious when she sucks her thumb. This illustrates the process of?

Operant conditioning. Signup and view all the answers

An event that strengthens the behavior it follows is called?

Reinforcement. Signup and view all the answers

Shaping is a(n) ________ procedure.

operant conditioning Signup and view all the answers

Every Saturday, Arnold quickly washes the dishes so that his father will allow him to wash his car. In this instance, washing the car is a(n)?

Positive reinforcer. Signup and view all the answers

Receiving delicious food is to escaping electric shock as is to .

Positive reinforcer; negative reinforcer. Signup and view all the answers

Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response is called a(n)?

Negative reinforcer. Signup and view all the answers

Primary reinforcers could best be described as?

Innately satisfying stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

Alex was paid $100 for eight hours of work. The money was a(n)?

Conditioned reinforcer. Signup and view all the answers

Blake prefers working on a ________ schedule of reinforcement.

Fixed-ratio. Signup and view all the answers

Paul is paid for every five calls he makes; Michael is paid for every subscription he sells. Paul's telephoning is reinforced on a schedule, while Michael's is reinforced on a schedule.

Fixed-ratio; variable-ratio. Signup and view all the answers

Purchasing state lottery tickets is reinforced with monetary winnings on a ________ schedule.

Variable-ratio. Signup and view all the answers

Taking away the driver's license of a reckless teen driver is intended to serve as a?

Negative punishment. Signup and view all the answers

Administering an aversive stimulus following an operant response is?

Positive punishment. Signup and view all the answers

Garcia and Koelling's studies of taste aversion in rats demonstrated that classical conditioning is constrained by?

Biological predispositions. Signup and view all the answers

It's easier to train a pigeon to peck a disk for a food reward than to flap its wings for a food reward. This illustrates the importance of?

Biological predispositions. Signup and view all the answers

After pigs learned to pick up and deposit wooden coins in a piggy bank, they subsequently dropped the coins repeatedly. This best illustrates the issue of?

Instinctual drift. Signup and view all the answers

After a week at college, Su-Chuan has formed a mental representation of the layout of the campus. What has she developed?

Cognitive map. Signup and view all the answers

The fact that learning can occur without reinforcement is most clearly demonstrated by studies of?

Latent learning. Signup and view all the answers

Dan and Joel, both 4-year-olds, have been watching reruns of 'Superman' on television. What best accounts for their behavior when standing on a roof?

Observational learning. Signup and view all the answers

Jeremy wears his baseball cap backward because he noticed that his older brother does so. This illustrates the importance of?

Modeling. Signup and view all the answers

In a well-known experiment, preschool children pounded and kicked a large inflated Bobo doll that an adult had just beaten on. This illustrates the importance of?

Observational learning. Signup and view all the answers

The tendency to engage in behaviors that we observe others rewarded for performing best illustrates the influence of?

Vicarious reinforcement. Signup and view all the answers

Mirror neurons are believed by some scientists to provide a biological basis for?

Observational learning. Signup and view all the answers

It has been suggested that ________ are activated when a monkey moves a peanut into its mouth and when it observes other monkeys moving a peanut into their mouths.

Mirror neurons. Signup and view all the answers

Recognizing that one of your friends is feeling angry and another is feeling sad illustrates an ability known as?

Theory of mind. Signup and view all the answers

According to the ________, you would be able to experience emotion even without sympathetic nervous system arousal.

Cannon-Bard theory. Signup and view all the answers

Research has shown that neck-level spinal cord injuries reduce the intensity of certain emotional experiences. This finding supports the?

James-Lange theory. Signup and view all the answers

According to the two-factor theory (Schacter-Singer), the two basic components of emotions are?

A cognitive label; physical arousal. Signup and view all the answers

Evidence that people can develop an emotional preference for stimuli to which they have been unknowingly exposed has convinced Robert Zajonc that?

Sometimes emotion precedes cognition. Signup and view all the answers

Unlike the low-road brain pathway, the high road for emotional responses extends through the?

Cortex. Signup and view all the answers

As her professor distributed the mathematics test, Blair's heart started to pound. These physiological reactions were activated by her ________ nervous system.

Sympathetic. Signup and view all the answers

Which division of the nervous system calms the body after an emergency has passed?

Parasympathetic. Signup and view all the answers

Boyd, a suspect in a criminal investigation, has agreed to take a lie detector test. The machine used in this test is most likely to measure his?

Perspiration levels. Signup and view all the answers

The guilty knowledge test is typically used to?

Assess a suspect's responses to details of a crime. Signup and view all the answers

Activation of the sympathetic nervous system?

Increases salivation and increases blood pressure. Signup and view all the answers

As you are waiting to be interviewed for a job, which nervous system is activated that causes your heart rate, body temperature, and breathing rate to increase?

Sympathetic. Signup and view all the answers

People from different cultures are most likely to differ with respect to?

How they interpret hand gestures such as the 'A - OK' sign. Signup and view all the answers

Botox paralysis of the frowning facial muscles people's reading of sadness-related sentences and activity in emotion-related brain circuits.

Slows; slows. Signup and view all the answers

The tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear or happiness is called?

The facial feedback effect. Signup and view all the answers

Reducing one's anger through aggressive action or fantasy is called?

Catharsis. Signup and view all the answers

The feel-good, do-good phenomenon refers to the fact that when people feel happy, they?

Are more willing to help others. Signup and view all the answers

During the last 50 years, the buying power of Americans has and their self-reported personal happiness has .

Increased; remained almost unchanged. Signup and view all the answers

People are likely to experience higher levels of ________ if they seek to contribute to their communities rather than simply strive for personal wealth and power.

Subjective well-being. Signup and view all the answers

Relative deprivation refers to the tendency for our personal happiness to be heavily influenced by?

Others' success. Signup and view all the answers

People tend to describe their experienced emotions along the two dimensions of?

Valence and arousal. Signup and view all the answers

Reducing one's anger through aggressive action or fantasy is called?

Catharsis. Signup and view all the answers

Reduced feelings of tension following aggressive outbursts contribute to?

The reinforcement of aggression. Signup and view all the answers

Relative deprivation refers to the tendency for our personal happiness to be heavily influenced by?

Others' success. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Learning Processes

Learning is defined as acquiring new information or relatively enduring behaviors.
Cognitive learning involves acquiring mental information through observation, language, or events.

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning occurs when a neutral stimulus, such as rubbing alcohol, becomes associated with a fear response after pairings with an unconditioned stimulus (painful injection).
A neutral stimulus elicits no response before conditioning, and becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) when it elicits a response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus (US), the presentation of food in Pavlov's experiments.
Acquisition is the stage in classical conditioning where the response to the CS is established, while generalization occurs when a response is triggered by stimuli similar to the CS.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning involves behaviors strengthened by reinforcement (positive or negative).
Reinforcers can be primary (innately satisfying stimuli) or conditioned (stimuli that gain reinforcing power through association).
Shaping is an operant conditioning procedure that reinforces closer approximations of desired behavior.
Positive reinforcement involves adding a favorable outcome, while negative reinforcement involves removing an aversive stimulus after a response.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed-ratio schedules provide reinforcement after a specific number of responses, while variable-ratio schedules provide reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses.
Fixed-interval schedules provide reinforcement after a specific time has passed, while variable-interval schedules provide reinforcement at random intervals.

Fear and Emotion

Extinction occurs when the conditioned response (fear) diminishes after repeated presentations of the CS without the US.
Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of an extinguished response after a time lapse.
The two-factor theory suggests emotions arise from both physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal.

Emotion Theories

The Cannon-Bard theory posits that emotion-arousing stimuli trigger reactions in both the cortex and sympathetic nervous system simultaneously.
The James-Lange theory asserts that physiological arousal precedes emotional experience.
The two-factor theory emphasizes the role of cognitive labels in experiencing emotions.

Nervous System & Emotions

The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for stress responses, while the parasympathetic system calms the body afterward.
Physiological reactions such as increased heart rate and perspiration are linked to emotional responses.

Happiness is relative and influenced by others' successes; this is known as relative deprivation.
Subjective well-being is higher among individuals contributing to their communities rather than pursuing personal wealth.
The feel-good, do-good phenomenon suggests that happy people are more likely to help others.

Psychoneuroimmunology

This field studies how stress affects resistance to disease and overall health.
Stressful life events, like loss or divorce, can increase vulnerability to health problems.

Stress and Health Vulnerability

Individuals recently experiencing widowhood, unemployment, or divorce face increased susceptibility to disease.
Advanced cancer progression is least inhibited by stress avoidance compared to other conditions like bacterial or viral infections and coronary heart disease.

General Adaptation Syndrome

Comprises three phases: alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion.
Understanding this model helps in recognizing stress responses.

Heart Disease Risk Factors

A 10-year study showed pessimists over double the likelihood of developing heart disease compared to optimists.
Demonstrates the influence of mindset on physical health outcomes.

Coping Strategies

Problem-focused coping directly addresses stressors to relieve stress.
Emotion-focused coping involves managing emotions rather than changing the stressor itself.

Importance of Control in Elderly

Lack of perceived control in elderly nursing home residents correlates with faster decline and earlier mortality.
Highlights the psychological aspect of health and longevity.

Optimism and Stress

Expecting positive outcomes, as exemplified by Alex, can significantly reduce stress levels.
Optimism is linked to better coping mechanisms and health resilience.

Intelligence Theories

Spearman's g factor refers to a general intelligence that supports performance across various tasks.
Charles Spearman advocates for using a single intelligence test score as an indicator of mental capacity.

Alternative Intelligence Models

L.L. Thurstone proposed that intelligence consists of seven distinct clusters, opposing the single-score perspective.
Howard Gardner introduced multiple intelligences, broadening the definition of cognitive capabilities.

Savant Syndrome

Characterized by individuals displaying exceptional specific skills despite limitations in other areas; underscores the diversity of intelligence manifestations.

Sternberg's Intelligence Categories

Sternberg differentiates between analytical, practical, and creative intelligence, with practical intelligence focusing on real-world application.

Emotional Intelligence

Reflects the ability to understand and manage one's emotions and recognize them in others.
Important for personal and professional interactions, as shown by Professor McGuire’s perceptual skills.

Binet and Simon's Contributions

Developed an intelligence test to identify children at risk of academic difficulties, setting the stage for educational psychology.

Intelligence Testing Standards

A standardized test has comparative validity against a representative group.
Content validity ensures a test accurately measures what it intends to assess, such as driving skills in a road test.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Definition

Originally calculated by dividing mental age by chronological age and multiplying by 100.

Achievement vs. Aptitude Tests

Achievement tests assess learned knowledge and skills, while aptitude tests gauge potential and capacity to succeed in future challenges.

WAIS Test Features

WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) provides an overall intelligence score along with specific scores for working memory and other cognitive skills.

Validity and Reliability in Testing

Validity assesses a test's accuracy in measuring what it intends to, while reliability ensures consistent results over time.
The Flynn effect suggests rising IQ scores over generations may stem from improved childhood health.

Cross-sectional research shows declining intelligence levels during early to middle adulthood while longitudinal studies indicate stability in that period.
Fluid intelligence peaks in early adulthood, while crystallized intelligence continues to grow into older age.

Research Methodologies

Longitudinal studies track changes within the same individuals over time, while cross-sectional studies compare different age groups at one point.
Understanding these methodologies can influence how intelligence studies are designed and interpreted.

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Test your knowledge with these flashcards for Psychology Exam 2. This quiz covers key concepts related to learning theories and the acquisition of mental information. Perfect for review before your exam!

Psychology Exam 2 Flashcards

Questions and Answers

Dante is most likely to want to help Jed study after he has:

During the last 50 years, the buying power of Americans has ________ and their self-reported personal happiness has ________.

People are likely to experience higher levels of ________ if they seek to contribute to their communities rather than simply strive for personal wealth and power.

Relative deprivation refers to the tendency for our personal happiness to be heavily influenced by:

An understanding of how stress affects our resistance to disease is the central focus of the field of:

Research on stressful life events indicates that:

Avoiding stress is LEAST likely to inhibit the progression of ________ in humans.

The three successive phases of the general adaptation syndrome are:

A Harvard School of Public Health research team studied men over a 10-year period. They found that ________ were more than twice as likely as ________ to develop heart disease.

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor is known as:

To alleviate the stress of losing her job, Alicia enrolled in a work retraining program. Her behavior best illustrates:

Vanessa alleviated stress by engaging in her work more actively after her husband's death. Her response best illustrates:

Elderly nursing home residents tend to decline faster and die sooner without:

Alex experiences little stress because he expects things to work out well. This best illustrates the value of:

Spearman's g factor refers to:

Who would have been most enthusiastic about a single intelligence test score as an index of individual mental capacities?

Professor Jenkins believes intelligence cannot be measured by a single score, but rather through seven primary abilities. His view closely resembles that of:

People with savant syndrome are best described as those who demonstrate:

Robert Sternberg distinguished among analytical, practical, and ________ intelligence.

Which person best illustrates Sternberg's concept of practical intelligence?

When Professor McGuire asks students to answer questions, she quickly tells from their expressions whether they are happy to participate. Her skill best illustrates:

Binet and Simon designed a test to:

The distribution of intelligence test scores should form a bell-shaped pattern, called:

To assess mental age, Binet and Simon measured children's:

If a test is standardized, this means that:

If a road test for a driver's license adequately samples tasks a driver faces, the test is said to have:

For the original version of the Stanford-Binet, IQ was defined as:

Achievement tests are designed to:

In addition to an overall intelligence score, the WAIS provides separate scores for skills such as:

Block design puzzles are used in one of the subtests of the:

A test that measures what it is supposed to is said to have a high degree of:

It would be reasonable to suggest that the Flynn effect is due in part to:

If a test yields consistent results every time it is used, it has a high degree of:

Your psychology professor announced that the next test will assess understanding of sensation and perception. If the test questions relate to other topics, you would be most concerned about the ________ of the test.

Cross-sectional research indicated that during early and middle adulthood, aging is associated with ________ levels of intelligence. Longitudinal research indicated that during this period, aging is associated with ________ levels of intelligence.

Ian Deary and his colleagues retested 80-year-old Scots using an intelligence test they had taken as 11-year-olds. The procedure used in this research best illustrates a:

Professor Juarez intends to measure the difference in spatial ability between people of different ages. He will be conducting:

In terms of age, ______________ intelligence peaks in the 20s and ___________ intelligence increases through the 70s.

The type of basic intelligence that makes learning quick and thorough is referred to as ______ intelligence.

Psychologists define learning as the process of?

The acquisition of mental information by observing events, watching others, or through language is called?

Which of the following processes accounts for Natacha becoming fearful every time she smells rubbing alcohol?

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning is called a(n)?

In Pavlov's experiments, what was the unconditioned stimulus (US)?

What is the term for a dog salivating to the sound of a tone that has been associated with food?

The stage in which a flatworm's contraction response to light is established is called?

A geometric figure is most likely to trigger sexual arousal if presented shortly?

Makayla developed an intense fear of flying five years ago. What indicates her fear has undergone?

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time lapse is called?

Toddlers taught to fear speeding cars may also begin to fear speeding trucks and motorcycles. This best illustrates?

After learning to fear a white rat, Little Albert responded with fear to the sight of a rabbit. This illustrates the process of?

Laurie's thumbsucking has become habitual because she feels less anxious when she sucks her thumb. This illustrates the process of?

An event that strengthens the behavior it follows is called?

Shaping is a(n) ________ procedure.

Every Saturday, Arnold quickly washes the dishes so that his father will allow him to wash his car. In this instance, washing the car is a(n)?

Receiving delicious food is to escaping electric shock as ________ is to ________.

Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response is called a(n)?

Primary reinforcers could best be described as?

Alex was paid $100 for eight hours of work. The money was a(n)?

Blake prefers working on a ________ schedule of reinforcement.

Paul is paid for every five calls he makes; Michael is paid for every subscription he sells. Paul's telephoning is reinforced on a ________ schedule, while Michael's is reinforced on a ________ schedule.

Purchasing state lottery tickets is reinforced with monetary winnings on a ________ schedule.

Taking away the driver's license of a reckless teen driver is intended to serve as a?

Administering an aversive stimulus following an operant response is?

Garcia and Koelling's studies of taste aversion in rats demonstrated that classical conditioning is constrained by?

It's easier to train a pigeon to peck a disk for a food reward than to flap its wings for a food reward. This illustrates the importance of?

After pigs learned to pick up and deposit wooden coins in a piggy bank, they subsequently dropped the coins repeatedly. This best illustrates the issue of?

After a week at college, Su-Chuan has formed a mental representation of the layout of the campus. What has she developed?

The fact that learning can occur without reinforcement is most clearly demonstrated by studies of?

Dan and Joel, both 4-year-olds, have been watching reruns of 'Superman' on television. What best accounts for their behavior when standing on a roof?

Jeremy wears his baseball cap backward because he noticed that his older brother does so. This illustrates the importance of?

In a well-known experiment, preschool children pounded and kicked a large inflated Bobo doll that an adult had just beaten on. This illustrates the importance of?

The tendency to engage in behaviors that we observe others rewarded for performing best illustrates the influence of?

Mirror neurons are believed by some scientists to provide a biological basis for?

It has been suggested that ________ are activated when a monkey moves a peanut into its mouth and when it observes other monkeys moving a peanut into their mouths.

Recognizing that one of your friends is feeling angry and another is feeling sad illustrates an ability known as?

According to the ________, you would be able to experience emotion even without sympathetic nervous system arousal.

Research has shown that neck-level spinal cord injuries reduce the intensity of certain emotional experiences. This finding supports the?

During the last 50 years, the buying power of Americans has and their self-reported personal happiness has .

A Harvard School of Public Health research team studied men over a 10-year period. They found that were more than twice as likely as to develop heart disease.

Cross-sectional research indicated that during early and middle adulthood, aging is associated with levels of intelligence. Longitudinal research indicated that during this period, aging is associated with levels of intelligence.

In terms of age, ____ intelligence peaks in the 20s and _ intelligence increases through the 70s.

Receiving delicious food is to escaping electric shock as is to .

Paul is paid for every five calls he makes; Michael is paid for every subscription he sells. Paul's telephoning is reinforced on a schedule, while Michael's is reinforced on a schedule.

Botox paralysis of the frowning facial muscles people's reading of sadness-related sentences and activity in emotion-related brain circuits.

During the last 50 years, the buying power of Americans has and their self-reported personal happiness has .