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Questions and Answers
What is the primary focus of psychology as a science?
What is the primary focus of psychology as a science?
What is the main distinction between basic and applied research in psychology?
What is the main distinction between basic and applied research in psychology?
Which of the following is NOT one of the four basic goals of psychology?
Which of the following is NOT one of the four basic goals of psychology?
Why is it important to consider diverse perspectives in psychology?
Why is it important to consider diverse perspectives in psychology?
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Which psychological perspective focuses on the influence of social and cultural factors on behavior?
Which psychological perspective focuses on the influence of social and cultural factors on behavior?
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According to sociobiology, which of the following behaviors is favored by natural selection?
According to sociobiology, which of the following behaviors is favored by natural selection?
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What does evolutionary psychology emphasize in the development of human behavior?
What does evolutionary psychology emphasize in the development of human behavior?
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Which statement reflects a common criticism of sociobiology?
Which statement reflects a common criticism of sociobiology?
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What is the primary focus of behavior genetics?
What is the primary focus of behavior genetics?
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Why are identical twins significant in behavior genetics research?
Why are identical twins significant in behavior genetics research?
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What does the cognitive perspective focus on regarding human behavior?
What does the cognitive perspective focus on regarding human behavior?
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What method did Wilhelm Wundt advocate for studying the mind?
What method did Wilhelm Wundt advocate for studying the mind?
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Which school of thought contributed to the cognitive perspective by analyzing the mind's basic elements?
Which school of thought contributed to the cognitive perspective by analyzing the mind's basic elements?
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What does the Biological Perspective primarily focus on?
What does the Biological Perspective primarily focus on?
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What is the concept of mind-body dualism?
What is the concept of mind-body dualism?
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What significant discovery did Luigi Galvani make in the late 1700s?
What significant discovery did Luigi Galvani make in the late 1700s?
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What does monism propose about the mind and body?
What does monism propose about the mind and body?
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What did Karl Lashley study regarding brain function?
What did Karl Lashley study regarding brain function?
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How did researchers demonstrate the relationship between brain stimulation and behavior by 1870?
How did researchers demonstrate the relationship between brain stimulation and behavior by 1870?
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How did Darwin's theory of natural selection relate to behavior?
How did Darwin's theory of natural selection relate to behavior?
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What technological advance in 1929 allowed researchers to measure brain activity?
What technological advance in 1929 allowed researchers to measure brain activity?
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What was the primary focus of functionalism in psychology?
What was the primary focus of functionalism in psychology?
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Which psychologist is associated with the concept of 'insight' in Gestalt psychology?
Which psychologist is associated with the concept of 'insight' in Gestalt psychology?
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What aspect of development did Jean Piaget focus on in his studies?
What aspect of development did Jean Piaget focus on in his studies?
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What did John Watson advocate regarding the subject matter of psychology?
What did John Watson advocate regarding the subject matter of psychology?
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According to the psychodynamic perspective, what influences most human behavior?
According to the psychodynamic perspective, what influences most human behavior?
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What is a key belief of social constructivism?
What is a key belief of social constructivism?
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What did Pavlov's experiments demonstrate about learning?
What did Pavlov's experiments demonstrate about learning?
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Which of the following best represents the behavioral perspective's view on behavior?
Which of the following best represents the behavioral perspective's view on behavior?
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What was Sigmund Freud's view regarding the role of repression?
What was Sigmund Freud's view regarding the role of repression?
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Which component of a neuron is primarily responsible for conducting electrical impulses?
Which component of a neuron is primarily responsible for conducting electrical impulses?
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Which philosophical approach is closely associated with the history of behaviorism?
Which philosophical approach is closely associated with the history of behaviorism?
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What term describes the two intertwined variables that prevent identifying which one influences the dependent variable?
What term describes the two intertwined variables that prevent identifying which one influences the dependent variable?
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Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with muscle behavior and memory functions?
Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with muscle behavior and memory functions?
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What is the primary role of glial cells in relation to neurons?
What is the primary role of glial cells in relation to neurons?
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In the structure of the brain, which area is responsible for critical voluntary motor control?
In the structure of the brain, which area is responsible for critical voluntary motor control?
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What mechanism is responsible for the restoration of resting potential after an action potential?
What mechanism is responsible for the restoration of resting potential after an action potential?
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Which part of the peripheral nervous system is responsible for voluntary movements?
Which part of the peripheral nervous system is responsible for voluntary movements?
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How does the reticular formation influence sensory processing?
How does the reticular formation influence sensory processing?
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What is the function of the myelin sheath in neurons?
What is the function of the myelin sheath in neurons?
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What happens during the refractory period of a neuron?
What happens during the refractory period of a neuron?
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Which area of the brain is essential for language comprehension?
Which area of the brain is essential for language comprehension?
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What kind of effects can drugs have on neurotransmitters?
What kind of effects can drugs have on neurotransmitters?
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Which subdivision of the autonomic nervous system is responsible for activating the body during stress?
Which subdivision of the autonomic nervous system is responsible for activating the body during stress?
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Study Notes
Psychology: Definition and Research
- Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and its influencing factors (biological, individual, environmental).
- It's both a basic and applied science.
- Basic research aims to describe behavior and identify influencing factors (lab or real-world settings). Example: Robert Cave's Jigsaw study demonstrated how competition creates hostility, but interdependence reduces it.
- Applied research uses basic research principles to solve practical problems.
Goals of Psychology
- Describe how people and animals behave.
- Explain and understand the causes of behavior.
- Predict how people and animals behave under specific conditions.
- Influence or control behavior through understanding its causes.
Perspectives in Psychology
- Multiple perspectives enrich understanding of behavior.
- Six perspectives: biological, cognitive, psychodynamic, behavioral, humanistic, and sociocultural.
- Biological: Focuses on the brain, genes, and biochemical processes.
- Cognitive: Studies thought processes and their influence on motives, emotions, and behavior.
- Psychodynamic: Emphasizes unconscious forces and unresolved conflicts.
- Behavioral: Highlights the role of the external environment in shaping behavior.
- Humanistic: Centers on self-actualization and free will.
- Sociocultural: Examines the relationship between culture and behavior.
The Biological Perspective
- Emphasizes the physical aspects of human nature, particularly the brain and its processes.
- Contrasts mind-body dualism (mind as separate spiritual entity) with monism (mind and body are one). Most scientists support monism.
- Research on brain-behavior relations: Galvani's frog leg experiment (electrical stimulation causing movement), brain stimulation leading to specific muscle movements, Lashley's studies on brain damage and learning, and the invention of the EEG.
- Evolutionary psychology focuses on the role of evolution in shaping human behavior. Natural selection favors traits enhancing survival and reproduction.
- Sociobiology suggests that complex social behaviors are evolutionary products, prioritizing gene survival (e.g., altruism). It's been criticized for potentially overemphasizing innate factors.
- Behavior genetics studies the influence of genetic factors on behavioral tendencies. Identical twins show greater behavioral similarity than fraternal twins, even when raised apart.
The Cognitive Perspective
- Views humans as information processors and problem solvers. Mental processes govern actions.
- Influenced by structuralism (analyzing basic elements of consciousness), functionalism (studying the functions of consciousness), Gestalt psychology (organizing experience into wholes), Piaget's work on cognitive development, and Ellis and Beck's theories on cognitive distortions.
- Structuralism: Wundt's approach to understand consciousness by breaking it down into basic parts (sensations); used introspection (self-examination of thoughts and feelings).
- Functionalism: James' broad approach examining how mental processes aid adaptation.
- Gestalt Psychology: Kohler's research on insight and problem-solving, demonstrating the importance of perceiving relationships (e.g., chimpanzee experiments).
- Modern cognitive science involves AI, speech production/recognition, and problem-solving. Social constructivism suggests that reality is largely a mental construct.
The Psychodynamic Perspective
- Emphasizes unconscious processes, personality dynamics, and past conflicts in shaping behavior.
- Freud's work: Focused on hysteria, unconscious forces, repression (defense mechanism), and internal psychological conflict. He used clinical observation and self-analysis. He believed that all behavior reflects unconscious struggles between psychological forces.
The Behavioral Perspective
- Focuses on the role of the external environment in shaping behavior.
- Rooted in British empiricism (knowledge gained through experience; Locke's "blank slate" concept). Observation is prioritized over reasoning.
- Pavlov's work on classical conditioning (involuntary learning).
- Watson's behaviorism: Emphasized observable behavior, aiming to discover laws governing learning and performance.
Research Methods
- Descriptive/Correlational research: Measures all variables; typically conducted in natural settings.
- Experimental research: Researcher manipulates independent variables, measures effects on dependent variables; often occurs in a lab; researcher controls extraneous factors.
Threats to Research Validity
- Internal validity: Degree to which an experiment supports clear causal conclusions.
- Confounding variables: Two intertwined variables make it unclear which influences the dependent variable (e.g., music's effect on test performance mediated by mood).
- Demand characteristics: Cues participants pick up about the hypothesis or expected behavior.
- Placebo effects: Alternative explanations for changes in response (e.g., improvement in psychotherapy due to expectation, not therapy itself).
- Experimenter expectancy effects: Subtle, unintentional influences by the experimenter. A double-blind procedure mitigates this (neither participant nor experimenter knows the condition).
- External validity: Generalizability of results to other people, settings, and conditions.
- Replication: Repeating a study to confirm original findings; challenges arise in identical replication.
Neurons
- Basic building blocks of the nervous system; ~100 billion at birth, daily loss.
- Three main parts:
- Cell body (soma): Contains structures for neuron survival; nucleus holds genetic information.
- Dendrites: Branch-like fibers collecting messages from other neurons.
- Axon: Conducts electrical impulses to other neurons, muscles, or glands; branches into axon terminals.
- Glial cells: Surround neurons, provide nutrients, form myelin sheath, absorb toxins, guide neuron placement during development.
- Blood-brain barrier: Prevents substances from entering the brain.
Nerve Conduction
- Neurons exist in a salty liquid environment (high sodium concentration outside, negative inside).
- Resting potential: -70mV.
- Action potential (nerve impulse): Reversal of membrane voltage from -70mV to +40mV (depolarization).
- Graded potentials: Changes in membrane potential proportional to stimulation; if strong enough, reaches action potential threshold (-55mV; all-or-none law).
- Ion channels (sodium and potassium) are crucial for depolarization and repolarization.
- Refractory period: Membrane is unexcitable, limiting action potential frequency (~300 impulses/second).
- Myelin sheath: Fatty insulation layer (glial cells) on axons, increasing conduction speed. Nodes of Ranvier interrupt the sheath.
Synaptic Transmission
- Neurons communicate via neurotransmitters across the synaptic cleft.
- Five steps: synthesis, storage, release, binding, deactivation (reuptake or breakdown).
- Neurotransmitters can be excitatory (depolarizing) or inhibitory (hyperpolarizing).
- Examples of neurotransmitters: acetylcholine (ACh), norepinephrine (NE), dopamine (DA), serotonin (5-HT), GABA.
- Drugs can affect neurotransmitters (e.g., cocaine, curare, black widow venom, botulism toxin, nicotine, caffeine).
- Disinhibition: Inhibition of inhibitory neurons.
Nervous System
- Three neuron types:
- Sensory neurons: Carry input from sense organs to the CNS.
- Motor neurons: Transmit output from CNS to muscles and organs.
- Interneurons: Link sensory and motor functions; involved in mental functions and behavior.
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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Neural structures outside the brain and spinal cord; includes the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
- Somatic nervous system: Voluntary control of skeletal muscles.
- Autonomic nervous system: Involuntary control of glands and smooth muscles; includes sympathetic (arousal) and parasympathetic (calming) branches; maintains homeostasis.
- Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord; spinal reflexes bypass the brain.
Studying the Brain
- Neuropsychological tests: Assess verbal and nonverbal functions affected by brain damage.
- Destructive and stimulation techniques: Controlled damage or stimulation to observe effects.
- Electrical recording (EEG): Measures brain activity.
- Brain imaging: CT scans (structure), PET scans (activity), MRI (detailed structure).
Brain Structures and Functions
- Hindbrain: Brainstem (medulla – vital functions; pons – nerve impulse relay) and cerebellum (motor coordination, learning, memory).
- Midbrain: Sensory and motor neurons, tracts connecting brain regions; reticular formation (sleep, wakefulness, attention).
- Forebrain: Cerebral hemispheres, cortex, thalamus (sensory relay), basal ganglia (motor control), hypothalamus (basic drives), limbic system (emotions, motivation; hippocampus – memory; amygdala – emotion).
- Cerebral Cortex: Four lobes (frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal); motor cortex, sensory cortex, speech areas (Wernicke's – comprehension; Broca's – production), association cortex (higher mental functions), prefrontal cortex (executive functions).
Hemispheric Lateralization
- Corpus callosum: Connects the hemispheres.
- Lateralization: Specialization of functions in one hemisphere (left – language, logic; right – spatial skills, creativity). Emotionality is also lateralized (left: positive; right: negative).
Brain Plasticity
- Neural plasticity: Neurons' ability to change structure and function; greater in children, but adaptable throughout life.
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Description
Explore the fundamental concepts of psychology, including the definitions, research methods, and goals of the field. Learn about the various perspectives that shape our understanding of behavior in both humans and animals. This quiz covers key aspects of both basic and applied psychology.
