Psychology: Critical Thinking and Schools of Thought

• Critical thinking examines assumptions, assesses sources, uncovers values, weighs evidence, and assesses conclusions, rather than blindly accepting arguments.

Schools of Thought

• Structuralism, promoted by Wundt, focused on the human mind's structure.
• Functionalism, promoted by James and influenced by Darwin, is an early school of thought focused on how the mind functions.
• Behaviorism states that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes
• Humanistic psychology emphasizes human growth potential.

Psychology Areas of Study

• Cognitive psychology studies mental processes such as perceiving, learning, remembering, thinking, communicating, and problem-solving.
• Cognitive neuroscience is the interdisciplinary study of brain activity linked with mental activity.
• The biopsychosocial approach integrates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints.
• The nature-nurture issue is a controversy about the influence of genes and experience on psychological traits and behaviors. Current science recognizes traits arise from the interaction of both.
• Dual processing is the principle that our mind processes information simultaneously on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

Research Methods

• A theory is an explanation using principles that organize observations and predict behaviors or events.
• A hypothesis is a testable prediction implied by a theory.
• An operational definition is a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study.
• Replication is repeating a research study to see if the basic finding can be reproduced, often with different participants or situations.
• A case study is a descriptive technique studying one individual or group in depth.
• Naturalistic observation is a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without intervention.
• A survey is a descriptive technique for obtaining self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a group, usually through a representative, random sample.
• A population is the entire group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.
• A random sample fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
• Correlation measures the extent to which two factors vary together, indicating how well one predicts the other, expressed mathematically from -1.00 to +1.00.
• Placebo effect refers to an inactive substance or condition given to a control group in place of the experimental treatment.
• The experimental group in an experiment is exposed to the treatment.
• The control group in an experiment is not exposed to the treatment and serves as a comparison.
• Double-blind procedure is when both participants and research staff are unaware of who receives the treatment or placebo.
• The dependent variable is the factor that is measured and may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
• The independent variable is the factor that is manipulated.
• A confounding variable is a factor other than the one being studied that might influence the study's results.
• Informed consent involves giving people enough information about a study to decide if they want to participate.
• Debriefing involves explaining the study's purpose and any deceptions after the experiment.

Biological Psychology

• Plasticity is the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or building new pathways based on experience.
• A neuron is a nerve cell and the basic building block of the nervous system.
• The cell body contains the nucleus.
• Dendrites are neuron extensions that receive and integrate messages.
• The axon is the neuron extension that sends messages to other neurons or to muscles and glands.
• Action potentials are nerve impulses.
• Glial cells support, nourish, and protect neurons and play a role in learning, thinking, and memory.
• Synapses are junctions between the axon tip of a sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of a receiving neuron.
• Neurotransmitters are chemicals that cross the synaptic gap to carry messages to other neurons, muscles, or glands.
• All-or-none law refers to a neuron's reaction of either firing fully or not firing at all.
• Threshold is the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.
• Refractory period is a brief resting pause after a neuron fires, during which subsequent action potentials cannot occur.

Nervous System

• The nervous system is the body's electrochemical communication network.
• The peripheral nervous system consists of the sensory and motor neurons connecting the central nervous system to the rest of the body.
• The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord.
• The endocrine system is the body's chemical communication system, using glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
• Hormones are chemical messengers manufactured by endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues.
• The limbic system, including the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus, is associated with emotions and drives.

The Brain

• Frontal lobes are involved in speaking, muscle movements, planning, and judgment.
• Parietal lobes receive sensory input for touch and body position.
• Occipital lobes receive information from the visual fields.
• Temporal lobes receive information from the ears.
• The motor cortex controls voluntary movements.
• The somatosensory cortex registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.
• Association areas are involved in higher mental functions, such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.
• The corpus callosum connects the two brain hemispheres and carries messages between them.
• Neurogenesis is the formation of new neurons.
• Consciousness is our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.
• Selective attention is focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.
• Inattentional blindness involves failing to notice changes in the environment.