Psychology Concepts and Theories Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What is the main purpose of split brain surgery?

  • To enhance memory
  • To repair brain injuries
  • To improve focus
  • To limit seizures (correct)

    • Phantom pain occurs after the removal of a limb but does not affect the brain's ability to feel pain.

    False

    What is selective attention?

    The ability to focus on one specific thing while filtering out other stimuli.

    The _____ rhythm is a 24-hour cycle that regulates sleep patterns.

    <p>circadian</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the sleep stages with their characteristics:

    <p>Stage 1 = Light sleep, can be easily awakened Stage 2 = Sleep spindles appear, deeper than Stage 1 Stage 3 = Deep sleep, hard to awaken REM Sleep = Vivid dreaming and rapid eye movement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is involved in making you sleepy?

    <p>Melatonin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Narcolepsy is characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden transitions into REM sleep.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of adenosine in sleep?

    <p>Adenosine promotes sleepiness and helps regulate the sleep-wake cycle.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process of converting physical stimulus into neural signals is known as _____ .

    <p>transduction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following conditions with their associated symptoms:

    <p>Prosopagnosia = Inability to recognize faces Left Side Neglect = Inability to attend to the left side Sleep Walking = Walking or performing actions while asleep Change Blindness = Failure to notice significant changes in the environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who is considered the father of experimental psychology?

    <p>Wilhelm Wundt</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Behaviorism emphasizes the study of internal mental processes.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What psychological theory focuses on the influence of early childhood experiences on behavior?

    <p>Psychoanalysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The primary focus of __________ psychology is the influence of social factors on individual behavior.

    <p>social</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the area of specialization with its primary focus:

    <p>Physiological Psychology = Investigates the biological basis of behavior Cognitive Psychology = Focuses on memory and decision making Clinical Psychology = Treatment of psychological disorders Developmental Psychology = Studies changes across the lifespan</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a method used in Scientific Psychology for testing hypotheses?

    <p>Experimental Method</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The cognitive revolution marked a decline in interest in mental activities.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of health psychology?

    <p>Stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes Gestalt Psychology?

    <p>The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Perceptual constancies allow objects to appear different sizes when viewed from various distances.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary visual cue used in depth perception that requires both eyes?

    <p>Retinal Disparity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (US) elicits a(n) ______ response.

    <p>unlearned</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their definitions:

    <p>Habituation = The tendency to become familiar with a stimulus due to repeated exposure Acquisition = The initial stage of learning when a response is established Extinction = The decrease of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented Spontaneous Recovery = The reappearance of a conditioned response after a rest period</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of taste aversion?

    <p>Getting sick after eating a certain food and then avoiding it in the future.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Depth perception can be fully developed without any prior visual experience.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the phenomenon where you perceive what you expect, influenced by prior experiences?

    <p>Perceptual Set</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus is known as ______.

    <p>classical conditioning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of learning involves an association between an action and its consequences?

    <p>Operant Conditioning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major disadvantage of naturalistic observation?

    <p>Inner states can only be inferred from behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Positive correlation means that as one variable increases, the other variable decreases.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does GABA primarily function as in the brain?

    <p>Inhibitor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ is responsible for forming new memories.

    <p>hippocampus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the neurotransmitter to its primary function:

    <p>Acetylcholine = Memory and muscle activity Dopamine = Control of voluntary movement Serotonin = Mood regulation Oxytocin = Bonding and social connection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a type of neurotransmitter mentioned?

    <p>Adrenaline</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ethical considerations are not relevant to experimentation.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the amygdala in the brain?

    <p>Emotion regulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A state where a person cannot form new memories is called ___________ amnesia.

    <p>anterograde</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of a case study?

    <p>Provides a rich description of individual behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The cerebral cortex is the innermost part of the brain.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of blocking acetylcholine in the body?

    <p>Paralysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of memory involves the inability to form new memories after brain trauma?

    <p>Anterograde Amnesia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Emotions are solely based on physiological changes without any cognitive interpretation.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The phenomenon where behavior changes due to being observed is known as __________.

    <p>reactance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which lobe is responsible for language comprehension?

    <p>Temporal Lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for forgetting memories prior to brain trauma?

    <p>Retrograde Amnesia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ Theory suggests that physiological changes occur simultaneously with emotional experiences.

    <p>Cannon-Bard</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following memory concepts with their definitions:

    <p>Context-Dependent Memory = Recall is enhanced when the physical context is the same as the learning context State-Dependent Memory = Recall is enhanced when the internal state is the same as when learning occurred Misinformation Effect = Altering memory through false or misleading information Implicit Memory = Learning new information without conscious awareness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true about mood congruent memory?

    <p>We remember information that aligns with our current mood.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The illusion of truth suggests that we believe something to be true the more we hear it.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who is known for research on the misinformation effect?

    <p>Elizabeth Loftus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If you learned something while feeling happy, you are likely to remember it better when you are in a __________ mood.

    <p>happy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the James-Lange Theory, what comes first in the emotional experience?

    <p>Physiological change</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of reinforcement strengthens a prior response through the removal of an aversive stimulus?

    <p>Negative Reinforcement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Positive punishment weakens a response by removing a pleasurable stimulus.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the capacity of short term memory generally considered to be?

    <p>7 +/- 2 items</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Reinforcement is any stimulus that __________ the likelihood of a prior response.

    <p>increases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method is considered best for transferring short term memories to long term?

    <p>Elaborative Rehearsal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Timing of reinforcements and punishments matters only for animals.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the 'Spacing Effect' in learning?

    <p>Spacing out study sessions improves memory retention.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The phenomenon where individuals associate random behaviors with rewards is known as __________ behavior.

    <p>superstitious</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following involves a brief memory system?

    <p>Sensory Memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the types of rehearsal to their descriptions:

    <p>Maintenance Rehearsal = Shallow processing to keep information temporarily Elaborative Rehearsal = Deep processing involving meaning and connections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Learned helplessness can occur after repeated stressful situations.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary distinction between deep and shallow processing?

    <p>Deep processing involves meaningful understanding while shallow processing is superficial.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ effect states that students remember information better if they generate it themselves versus just reading it.

    <p>generation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about observational learning is incorrect?

    <p>It primarily uses auditory cues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does selective attention allow individuals to do?

    <p>Focus on specific stimuli while ignoring others.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of ingroup bias?

    <p>Magnifying differences between groups.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Outgroup homogeneity bias causes individuals to recognize differences among outgroup members more easily.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one effective way to reduce stereotypes?

    <p>Cooperation towards a common goal.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cognitive dissonance theory explains the discomfort felt when one's behavior is inconsistent with their ______.

    <p>attitudes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a hallmark symptom of schizophrenia?

    <p>Hallucinations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    People with schizophrenia have a consistent version of reality that aligns with those without it.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of conformity with their definitions:

    <p>Private Conformity = Both behavior and opinion change Public Conformity = Behavior changes while beliefs remain the same Informational Influence = Conforming because we assume others are correct Normative Influence = Conforming because we don't want to be different</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who conducted studies that illustrate obedience to authority?

    <p>Milgram</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is 'Word Salad' in relation to schizophrenia?

    <p>A jumble of words that do not make sense.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    People are usually more aware of their own body language than others are.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A common negative symptom of schizophrenia is the absence of __________.

    <p>emotion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors has been linked to developing schizophrenia?

    <p>Genetic predisposition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the inflated view of oneself, often leading to serious consequences?

    <p>Overconfidence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the somatoform disorders with their descriptions:

    <p>Hypochondria = Chronic preoccupation with health and misinterpreting symptoms Conversion Disorder = Temporary loss of bodily function with no physical basis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to cognitive dissonance theory, individuals may ________ their behaviors to feel better about them.

    <p>rationalize</p> Signup and view all the answers

    People diagnosed with schizophrenia cannot lead active and normal lives.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of conformity occurs when individuals change both behavior and opinion?

    <p>Private Conformity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does therapy play in conversion disorder?

    <p>It helps the symptoms to go away.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of facial expressions according to the information provided?

    <p>To express emotions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Women are generally less expressive of their emotions compared to men.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What theory suggests that emotion results from a combination of physiological arousal and cognitive labeling?

    <p>Two-factor theory of emotions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    People may misattribute their arousal to the wrong ______, resulting in mistaken emotions.

    <p>source</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a cultural variation in nonverbal communication?

    <p>Body language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The size of pupils can indicate attraction or disinterest.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the phenomenon where your belief about someone influences their behavior in response?

    <p>Self-fulfilling prophecy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the process of encoding, individuals must be ______ in their nonverbal communication.

    <p>expressive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following nonverbal communication types with their descriptions:

    <p>Illustrators = Gestures that emphasize verbal communication Emblems = Gestures with specific culturally-defined meanings Personal space = The physical distance maintained between individuals Pupillometry = Study of pupil size in relation to interest or attraction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a function of nonverbal communication?

    <p>Create noise</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Counterfactual thinking is imagining alternatives to events that did not occur.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theory suggests that language learning is primarily influenced by exposure to language in the environment?

    <p>Skinner's theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe a physiological response that is followed by an emotional opposite?

    <p>Opponent-Process Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Critical Period Hypothesis states that language learning becomes harder as children grow older.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the cognitive benefits of growing up bilingual?

    <p>More efficient cognitive processing skills</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ______ Attribution Error occurs when personal factors are overestimated as causes of behavior.

    <p>Fundamental</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Harlow's monkeys demonstrated the importance of _____ in the development of attachment.

    <p>comfort</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following stages of Kohlberg's moral development with their descriptions:

    <p>Preconventional Level = Moral dilemmas resolved by self-serving motives Conventional Level = Moral dilemmas resolved by laws or parental norms Postconventional Level = Moral dilemmas based on abstract principles and conscience</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of secure attachment in children?

    <p>Sadness when parents leave</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The marshmallow test indicates that self-control in children is linked to future success.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What age range does adolescence cover?

    <p>Ages 13-20</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _____ experiment illustrates how a parent's rejection can harm a child's development.

    <p>Still Face</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stage in Erikson's development theory involves discovering one's identity?

    <p>Identity vs. Role Confusion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the main outcome of the Stanford Prison Experiment?

    <p>Participants quickly fell into their assigned roles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Social loafing increases individual output when working in groups.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was the researcher behind the Stanford Prison Experiment?

    <p>Philip Zimbardo</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the frustration-aggression hypothesis, __________ causes aggression.

    <p>frustration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the form of aggression with its characteristics:

    <p>Overt Aggression = Direct harm, mostly physical Relational Aggression = Affecting psychological well-being or social standing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors can lead to increased aggression in individuals?

    <p>Frustration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Exposure to violence during childhood has been linked to reduced aggression in adulthood.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does the mere exposure effect have on attraction to individuals?

    <p>Increases attraction through familiarity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a group task, if your work is not evaluated, you are likely to experience __________.

    <p>social loafing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the terms with their definitions:

    <p>Altruism = Behavior intended to help others Aggression = Behavior intended to inflict harm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors influences men's aggression more than women's?

    <p>Testosterone levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The bystander effect occurs when the likelihood of receiving help decreases as the number of bystanders increases.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What psychological state can lead to increased aggression according to the concept of deindividuation?

    <p>Depersonalization.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ effect suggests that familiarity leads to increased attraction.

    <p>mere exposure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of a reflex that newborn babies exhibit?

    <p>Grasping</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Genetics have no influence on the traits of individuals.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What stage of cognitive development occurs from birth to 2 years old?

    <p>Sensorimotor Stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ability of infants to recognize their mother's voice is an example of ___________ preference.

    <p>auditory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following stages of Piaget's cognitive development with their characteristics:

    <p>Sensorimotor Stage = Object permanence develops Preoperational Stage = Egocentric thinking Concrete Operational Stage = Conservation achieved Formal Operational Stage = Systematic logical thinking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which behavior indicates that a newborn is forming a bond?

    <p>Grasping a finger</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Children at the preoperational stage are capable of conservation.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of modifying schemas to incorporate new information?

    <p>Accommodation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Children develop self-recognition around the age of ___________.

    <p>2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following reflexes to their descriptions:

    <p>Rooting = Turning head to find food Stepping = Practicing for walking Crying = Indicating distress Grasping = Holding onto an object</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age do children typically start babbling?

    <p>4 months</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Infants' auditory capabilities remain the same throughout their lives.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the awareness that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible?

    <p>Object permanence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The theory that states we can learn any language but it's harder as we get older is related to ___________.

    <p>critical periods</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following traits is part of the Big Five personality model?

    <p>Openness to Experience</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Men are genetically predisposed to prefer older women for reproductive choices.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the acronym OCEAN stand for in the context of the Big Five personality traits?

    <p>Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _____ method studies identical and fraternal twins to understand the influence of genetics and environment.

    <p>Twin-Study</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following personality models with their primary focus:

    <p>Myers-Briggs = 16 Personality Types Enneagram = 9 Personality Types HEXACO = Honesty-Humility and Other Traits Big Five = OCEAN Model</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following personality traits is associated with higher risk for mental health issues?

    <p>Neuroticism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Personality types are always distinct and clearly defined.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between identical and fraternal twins regarding genetic similarity?

    <p>Identical twins share more DNA than fraternal twins.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the evolutionary approach, women tend to be more _____ in their reproductive choices.

    <p>selective</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which personality trait model is considered the standard for good measurement in psychometrics?

    <p>Big Five</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Personality remains completely stable and does not change across the lifespan.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What psychological concept explains the interaction of genes and environment in personality development?

    <p>Nature vs. Nurture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _____ approach believes that genetic traits have been passed down through generations.

    <p>sociobiological</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of intelligence declines with age?

    <p>Fluid Intelligence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Elderly individuals struggle with prospective memory.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What neurotransmitter is linked to Alzheimer's Disease due to its under supply?

    <p>acetylcholine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Psychopathology is the study of __________ disorders.

    <p>psychological</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following psychological disorders with their categories:

    <p>Generalized Anxiety Disorder = Internalizing Psychopathology Substance Related Disorder = Externalizing Psychopathology Schizophrenia = Thought Disorders Eating Disorders = Internalizing Psychopathology</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common characteristic of Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)?

    <p>Persistent feelings of worry</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Asperger's syndrome is currently classified as a form of autism in the DSM.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of psychotherapy is emphasized for helping individuals with disorders?

    <p>various types of therapy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process of grouping and naming psychological disorders is known as __________.

    <p>diagnosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines the medical perspective on psychological disorders?

    <p>Absence of disease as a measure of health</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Children cannot experience mental health issues.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one physical feature commonly associated with Generalized Anxiety Disorder.

    <p>muscle tension</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ model incorporates biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding psychological disorders.

    <p>biopsychosocial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following disorders is characterized by intrusions of persistent thoughts and a need to perform repetitive actions?

    <p>Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Phobias can only be developed through classical conditioning.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main symptom that occurs in individuals with PTSD when they remember their trauma?

    <p>Reliving the past trauma or intense anxiety.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Major Depressive Disorder is associated with feelings of __________ and loss of interest.

    <p>despair</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following mood disorders with their descriptions:

    <p>Major Depressive Disorder = Deep despair and loss of interest Bipolar Disorder = Fluctuations between mania and depression Dysthymia = Mild, persistent depression Cyclothymia = Lower level bipolar disorder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about Bipolar Disorder is true?

    <p>Individuals cycle between manic and depressive states.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Women are more likely to develop Dissociative Identity Disorder than men.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common trait among individuals diagnosed with Dysthymia?

    <p>It involves mild, persistent depression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Individuals suffering from ___________ state forget their identity and may wander away without recalling what happened.

    <p>fugue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitters are often found at lower levels in individuals with Major Depressive Disorder?

    <p>Norepinephrine and serotonin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Stress hormones and cortisol levels are believed to relate to the onset of PTSD symptoms.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main psychological mechanism believed to help individuals cope with trauma in Dissociative Disorders?

    <p>Dissociation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    People with ___________ believe they have no control over their environment and often feel helpless.

    <p>learned helplessness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these is NOT a symptom of PTSD?

    <p>Deep despair</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Introduction to Psychology

    • Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and the mind.
    • Key components include science, behavior, and mind.

    History of Psychology

    • Roots in Greek philosophy.
    • Formal beginnings with Wundt (1879).
      • Introspection: examining one's own thoughts.
      • Early focus on experimental psychology.
    • Freud's psychoanalysis.
      • Concept of "Freudian slips."
    • Behaviorism redefined psychology as observable behavior, rejecting introspection.
    • Cognitive revolution (1960s) re-emphasized mental activity.

    Areas of Specialization

    • Physiological psychology: investigates biological basis of behavior (brain function and behavior).
    • Consciousness: examines multitasking, subliminal information, and sleep.
    • Sensation & Perception: explores our experiences of the physical world.
    • Cognitive psychology: studies decision-making, language, memory, and learning strategies.
    • Social psychology: focuses on first impressions, attraction, attitudes, prejudice, conformity, and obedience.
    • Personality psychology: explores individual differences and traits.
    • Developmental psychology: examines nature-nurture interactions, stage theories, and lifespan development.
    • Clinical & Counseling psychology: addresses psychological disorders through diagnosis and treatment.
    • Industrial & Organizational psychology: studies workplace psychology.
    • Health psychology: investigates stress and well-being.
    • Forensic psychology: applies psychology to the legal system.

    Scientific Methods

    • Evaluating information critically is important.
    • Theories explain phenomena; hypotheses are testable predictions.
    • Descriptive statistics, correlation, and experimentation are key methods.
      • Descriptive methods:
        • Naturalistic observation: recording behavior in natural setting.
        • Case studies: in-depth analysis of individuals or groups.
        • Surveys: large-scale measurements.
      • Correlation: describes relationship between variables (direction and strength).
      • Experimentation: manipulating variables to determine cause-and-effect relationships.

    Neuroscience

    • Neurons transmit electrochemical signals; synapses are the gaps between neurons; neurotransmitters send messages.
    • Types of Neurotransmitters & Hormones:
      • Acetylcholine: involved in muscle action, learning, and memory (Alzheimer's).
      • GABA: primary inhibitory neurotransmitter (anxiety, epilepsy).
      • Serotonin: plays a role in mood (depression, SSRIs).
      • Dopamine: involved in movement and reward (Parkinson's, schizophrenia, addictions).
      • Oxytocin: hormone associated with bonding, love, and social behavior.
    • The Brain:
      • Brain imaging techniques reveal brain activity; lesions and stimulation methods study brain functions.
      • Limbic system (amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus): involved in emotion and motivation.
      • Cerebral cortex (frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital lobes): differentiates humans and contains sensory and motor areas.
      • Hemispheric specialization: left (language) and right (non-verbal) hemispheres.
      • Neural plasticity: brain's ability to change.
      • Split brain research.

    Consciousness

    • Consciousness involves awareness of sensations, thoughts, and feelings.
      • Selective attention
      • Change blindness
      • Divided attention (multitasking)
    • Sleep:
      • Circadian rhythms (sleep-wake cycles): regulated by hormones (adenosine, melatonin, epinephrine).
      • Sleep stages (NREM, REM): impacting brain activity and memory.
      • Sleep disorders (parasomnia, narcolepsy).
      • Functions and theories of sleep (restoration, memory processing).
    • Dreams:
      • Lucid dreaming
      • Activation-synthesis theory.

    Sensation and Perception

    • Sensation vs. Perception.
      • Transduction
    • Gestalt principles organize perceptive experiences (figure-ground, Gestalt).
      • Perceptual Constancy (size, shape).
      • Depth Perception (retinal disparity, linear perspective).
    • Perceptual illusions (Muller-Lyer, Ponzo).
    • Synesthesia: blending of senses.

    Learning

    • Learning: relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.
      • Non-associative learning
        • Habituation
      • Associative learning
        • Classical conditioning (Pavlov's experiment, acquisition, generalization, extinction, spontaneous recovery)
          • Applications (phobias, taste aversion).
        • Operant conditioning (Skinner box, reinforcement, punishment)
          • Applications (behavior modification).
        • Observational learning (Bandura's Bobo doll study).
    • Learning styles are debated/unproven.

    Memory

    • Memory processes (sensory, short-term, long-term).
    • Information-processing model (encoding, storage, retrieval).
      • Strategies to enhance memory: Levels of processing effective, encoding & elaborative rehearsal, self reference effect, organization etc..
      • Impact of spacing
    • Memory distortions (misinformation effect, eyewitness testimony).
    • Amnesia types (anterograde, retrograde).

    Emotions

    • Emotions involve physiological changes, expressive behaviors, and cognitive interpretations.
    • Theories of emotion (James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, two-factor theory).
      • Opponent-process theory
    • Nonverbal communication:
      • Facial expressions
      • Body language
      • The role of culture in emotional expression
    • Cognitive factors in emotions (counterfactual thinking, misattribution).
    • Gender differences in emotional expression.

    Social Psychology

    • Social psychology studies how individuals interact in social contexts.
    • Attribution theory (fundamental attribution error, self-serving bias).
    • Social thinking (first impressions, self-fulfilling prophecies, stereotypes, prejudice, discrimination, ingroup bias).
    • Attitudes and attitude change.
      • Cognitive dissonance theory.
    • Social influence (conformity, obedience, group influence, social facilitation, social loafing, deindividuation).
    • Social behavior: aggression, altruism, bystander effect, close relationships (attraction).

    Personality

    • Personality traits: enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
    • Structure of personality:
      • Personality types (Big Five, MBTI, Enneagram): pros and cons.
      • Personality traits model (Big Five, HEXACO).
        • Stability and change.

    Developmental Psychology

    • Nature vs. Nurture interaction (twin studies, adoption studies).
    • Newborn reflexes.
      • Perceptual abilities
    • Cognitive development (Piaget's stages).
      • Language development (nurture vs. nature, critical period).
    • Social development (attachment, adolescence, adulthood).

    Psychopathology

    • Psychopathology: patterns of dysfunction related to distress and impairment.
    • Categories of disorders
      • Anxiety disorders
      • Mood disorders
      • Dissociative disorders
      • Schizophrenia
      • Somatoform disorders
    • Dimensional vs. categorical models.

    Additional Notes

    • Terms like pop psychology and critical thinking also play a role in the subject
    • The use of scientific methods and a biopsychosocial perspective are noted throughout the subject.

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    Test your knowledge on key concepts in psychology, including split brain surgery, selective attention, and the effects of sleep on behavior. This quiz also explores important psychological theories and conditions, providing an insightful review of the field. Perfect for students and enthusiasts alike!

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