Psychology Chapter 10: Sleep Disorders

Key Psychological Concepts

• Cultural Norms: Shared rules governing acceptable behavior within a group or society.
• Confirmation Bias: Seeking and interpreting information supporting existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.
• Hindsight Bias: Believing an outcome was predictable after it occurred ("I-knew-it-all-along").
• Overconfidence: Overestimating abilities, knowledge, or judgment accuracy.
• Independent Variables: Factors manipulated in experiments to observe their impact.
• Confounding Variables: External factors potentially influencing experimental results.
• Dependent Variables: Factors measured in an experiment to assess the effect of independent variables.
• Random Assignment: Randomly assigning participants to experimental or control groups in experiments.
• Case Study: In-depth analysis of a person, group, or event.
• Correlation: Measuring the relationship between two variables.
• Positive Correlation: An increase in one variable associated with an increase in another.
• Negative Correlation: An increase in one variable associated with a decrease in another.
• Meta-Analysis: Combining numerous studies to draw a comprehensive conclusion.
• Naturalistic Observation: Observing subjects in their natural environment without intervention.
• Hypothesis: A testable prediction about a relationship between variables.
• Falsifiable Hypothesis: A hypothesis capable of being disproven.
• Operational Definitions: Precisely defining variables in a study.
• Replication: Repeating a study to confirm findings.
• Central Tendency: Statistical measures (mean, median, mode) representing typical values.
• Variation: The spread or dispersion of data points around a central value.
• Percentile Rank: Percentage of scores falling below a particular value.
• Mean: The average of a set of numbers.
• Median: The middle value in an ordered dataset.
• Mode: The most frequent value(s) in a dataset.
• Range: Difference between the highest and lowest values.
• Normal Curve: A bell-shaped distribution with most data clustered around the mean.
• Positive Skew: Distribution with a longer tail on the right, pulled to the right by extreme high values in the data.
• Negative Skew: Distribution with a longer tail on the left, pulled to the left by extreme low values in the data.
• Bimodal Distribution: Distribution with two distinct peaks.
• Standard Deviation: Measurement of data dispersion, how values spread out from the mean.
• Regression Toward the Mean: The tendency for extreme values to be followed by values closer to the average.
• Sample: A subset of a larger group (population).
• Population: The complete group being studied.
• Representative Sample: A sample accurately reflecting the population's characteristics.
• Random Sampling: Every member has an equal chance.
• Convenience Sampling: Participants are chosen based on availability.
• Generalizing: Drawing conclusions about a population based on a sample.
• Experimental Group: The group receiving the treatment.
• Control Group: The group not receiving the treatment.
• Placebo: An inert treatment given to the control group.
• Placebo Effect: The impact of belief in treatment, regardless of active ingredients.
• Single-Blind Study: Participants unaware of the group assignment.
• Double-Blind Study: Neither participants nor researchers know group assignment.
• Experimenter Bias: Researcher's expectations influencing the study outcome.
• Social Desirability Bias: Participants responding in a socially desirable manner, not truthfully.

Attribution and Motivation

• Attributions: Explanations for behavior.
• Dispositional Attributions: Explanations focusing on personality traits.
• Situational Attributions: Explanations focusing on external factors.
• Explanatory Style: Habitual style of explaining events.
• Optimistic Explanatory Style: Attributing negative events to temporary, external factors.
• Pessimistic Explanatory Style: Attributing negative events to internal, stable factors.
• Actor/Observer Bias: Explaining own behavior situationally, others' dispositionally.
• Fundamental Attribution Error: Overestimating dispositional factors, underestimating situational factors.
• Self-Serving Bias: Attributing successes internally, failures externally.
• Internal Locus of Control: Belief that actions determine outcomes.
• External Locus of Control: Belief that external factors control outcomes.
• Mere Exposure Effect: Repeated exposure increasing preference.
• Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Expectations influencing events to become reality.
• Social Comparison: Evaluating oneself by comparing to others.
• Upward Social Comparison: Comparing to perceived better individuals.
• Downward Social Comparison: Comparing to perceived worse-off individuals.
• Relative Deprivation: Feeling dissatisfaction from comparing to those better off.
• Stereotype: Generalized beliefs about groups.
• Cognitive Load: Level of mental effort in working memory.
• Prejudice: Preconceived negative attitude toward a group.
• Discrimination: Biased treatment based on group membership.
• Implicit Attitudes: Unconscious beliefs and feelings toward a group.
• Just-World Phenomenon: Belief that the world is fair, leading to victim blaming.
• Out-Group Homogeneity Bias: Perceived similarity among out-group members.
• In-Group Bias: Favoring in-group members.
• Ethnocentrism: Believing one's culture is superior.
• Belief Perseverance: Clinging to beliefs despite contradictory evidence.
• Confirmation Bias: Seeking confirming evidence.
• Cognitive Dissonance: Mental discomfort from conflicting beliefs.
• Social Norms: Unwritten rules for behavior within a group.
• Social Influence Theory: Studying individual influence by conformity, compliance, obedience.
• Normative Social Influence: Influence to gain approval or avoid disapproval.
• Informational Social Influence: Influence to act correctly based on others.
• Persuasion: Influencing attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors through communication.
• Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM): Explanation of attitude change through central and peripheral routes.
• Central Route: Careful consideration of arguments' content and quality.
• Peripheral Route: Influence from superficial cues like attractiveness.
• Halo Effect: Assuming positive qualities extend to unrelated areas.
• Foot-in-the-Door Technique: Small request followed by larger request for compliance.
• Door-in-the-Face Technique: Large request followed by smaller request.
• Conformity: Adjusting to group norms.
• Obedience: Following orders from authority.
• Individualism: Prioritizing individual goals and independence.
• Collectivism: Prioritizing group goals and interdependence.
• Multiculturalism: Coexistence of numerous cultures.
• Group Polarization: Discussion amplifying initial group tendencies.
• Groupthink: Desire for harmony overriding decision-making quality.
• Diffusion of Responsibility: Reduced accountability in the presence of others.
• Social Loafing: Reduced effort in group settings compared to individual efforts.
• Deindividuation: Disinhibition and lack of self-awareness in group settings.
• Social Facilitation: Improved performance on simple tasks in the presence of others.
• False Consensus Effect: Overestimating consensus on beliefs and behaviors.
• Superordinate Goals: Goals requiring group cooperation.
• Social Traps: Situations of self-interest harming the collective.
• Altruism: Selfless behavior benefiting others.
• Prosocial Behavior: Actions intended to help others.
• Social Debt: Feeling obligation to reciprocate help.
• Social Reciprocity Norm: Expected help for help.
• Social Responsibility Norm: Expected help for those in need.
• Bystander Effect: Reduced helping in emergencies with others present.
• Situational Variables: External factors influencing behavior.
• Attentional Variables: Factors influencing attention.

Personality, Psychodynamic, and Humanistic Theories

• Psychodynamic Theory: Focus on unconscious drives, often rooted in childhood.
• Unconscious Processes: Mental activities outside of awareness.
• Ego Defense Mechanisms: Unconscious strategies to manage anxiety.
• Denial: Refusing to accept reality.
• Displacement: Redirecting emotions to less threatening targets..
• Projection: Attributing own feelings to others.
• Rationalization: Justifying behavior with plausible explanations.
• Reaction Formation: Acting opposite to true feelings.
• Regression: Reverting to earlier behaviors in stressful situations.
• Repression: Pushing distressing memories into the unconscious.
• Sublimation: Channeling unacceptable impulses into acceptable activities.
• Projective Tests: Using ambiguous stimuli for uncovering unconscious feelings.
• Preconscious Mind: Contains information accessible, but not currently in awareness.
• Unconscious Mind: Contains thoughts, memories, and urges outside of awareness.
• Humanistic Psychology: Focus on personal growth, free will, and goodness.
• Unconditional Regard: Acceptance without judgment.
• Self-Actualizing Tendency: Drive to achieve full potential.
• Social-Cognitive Theory: Interaction of personal, behavioral, and environmental factors influencing behavior.
• Reciprocal Determinism: Mutual influence of behavior, personal factors, and environment.
• Self-Concept: Individual's perception of themselves.
• Self-Efficacy: Belief in ability to achieve goals.
• Self-Esteem: Evaluation of one's own worth.
• Trait Theories: Identifying and measuring individual personality traits.
• Big Five Theory: Model describing five major personality traits: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (Emotional Stability).
• Agreeableness: Compassionate, cooperative, and trusting.
• Openness to Experience: Imaginative, curious, and open to new ideas.
• Extraversion: Outgoing, energetic, and sociable.
• Conscientiousness: Organized, responsible, and dependable.
• Emotional Stability (Neuroticism): Calm, balanced, and less prone to negative emotions.
• Personality Inventories: Questionnaires for assessing personality traits.

Motivation

• Motivation: Internal and external processes driving goal-directed behavior.
• Drive-Reduction Theory: Motivation arises from biological drives to reduce internal tension.
• Homeostasis: Body's tendency to maintain internal stability.
• Arousal Theory: Motivation to maintain optimal arousal level.
• Optimal Level of Arousal: Level of activation promoting optimal performance.
• Yerkes-Dodson Law: Performance increases with arousal up to a point.
• Self-Determination Theory: Importance of intrinsic motivation, competence, autonomy, and relatedness.
• Intrinsic Motivation: Engaging in activities for their inherent satisfaction.
• Incentive Theory: External rewards influencing motivation.
• Extrinsic Motivation: Motivation driven by external rewards.
• Instincts: Innate, fixed patterns of behavior.
• Lewin’s Motivational Conflicts Theory: Conflicts influencing decision-making.
• Approach-Approach Conflicts: Choosing between two desirable options.
• Approach-Avoidance Conflicts: Facing a single option with both positive and negative aspects.
• Avoidance-Avoidance Conflicts: Choosing between two undesirable options.
• Sensation-Seeking Theory: Varying needs for novel and intense experiences.
• Thrill Seeking: Pursuing thrilling activities.
• Adventure Seeking: Seeking novel experiences.
• Disinhibition: Preference for social/physical activities relieving inhibitions.
• Boredom Susceptibility: Aversion to repetitive or unchanging stimuli.

Biological and Environmental

• Ghrelin: Hormone stimulating hunger.
• Leptin: Hormone regulating energy balance.
• Hypothalamus: Brain region regulating hunger, thirst, and homeostasis.
• Pituitary Gland: Master endocrine gland.

Emotion

• Affect: Broad term encompassing emotions, moods, and feelings.
• Internal & External Factors: Influences from within and without impacting emotions.
• Physiological vs. Cognitive Experiences: Physical and mental aspects of emotion.
• Cognitive Label: Interpreting physiological arousal as an emotion.
• Facial-Feedback Hypothesis: Facial expressions influencing emotions.
• Cognitive Appraisal: Evaluating a situation's significance.
• Display Rules: Cultural norms guiding emotion expression.
• Elicitors: Triggers provoking emotional responses.

Heredity and Environment (Nature vs. Nurture)

• Heredity: Traits passed from parents to offspring.
• Nature: Influence of genetic factors on traits and behaviors.
• Nurture: Influence of environmental factors on traits and behaviors.
• Genetic Predisposition: Increased likelihood of traits or conditions.
• Evolutionary Perspective: Natural selection shaping behavior.
• Natural Selection: Favoring traits enhancing survival and reproduction.
• Eugenics: Controversial practice for improving genetic quality.
• Twin Studies: Comparing identical and fraternal twins.
• Family Studies: Analyzing similarities within families.
• Adoption Studies: Comparing adopted and biological relatives.

Nervous System, The Neuron, and Neural Firing

• Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord, processing and sending information.
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Nerves outside the CNS, connecting to the body.
• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Involuntary functions (heartbeat, digestion).
• Sympathetic Nervous System: Prepares the body for action.
• Parasympathetic Nervous System: Promotes relaxation.
• Somatic Nervous System: Voluntary muscle movements.
• Neurons: Specialized cells transmitting neural impulses.
• Glial Cells: Supporting and protecting neurons.
• Reflex Arc: Automatic response to stimulus.
• Sensory Neurons: Carry sensory information to the CNS.
• Motor Neurons: Carry commands from the CNS to muscles.
• Interneurons: Connect sensory and motor neurons.
• Neural Transmission: Process of neuron communication via impulses and neurotransmitters.
• Action Potential: Rapid electrical impulse along a neuron.
• All-or-Nothing Principle: Neuron either fires fully or not at all.
• Depolarization: Increase in membrane potential allowing action potential.
• Refractory Period: Time neuron cannot fire again.
• Resting Potential: Neuron's charge when not firing.
• Reuptake: Neurotransmitter reabsorption by the releasing neuron.
• Threshold: Stimulation level triggering an action potential.

Brain

• Brain Stem: Regulating vital functions (heart rate, breathing).
• Medulla: Autonomic functions (breathing, heartbeat).
• Reticular Activating System: Regulates wakefulness and alertness.
• Reward Center: Pleasure and motivation areas (nucleus accumbens).
• Cerebellum: Motor control, balance, and coordination.
• Cerebral Cortex: Outer layer of the brain, complex thought, memory, and perception.
• Limbic System: Involved in emotions, motivation, memory.
• Thalamus: Relays sensory information.
• Hypothalamus: Regulates homeostasis and endocrine system.
• Pituitary Gland: Master endocrine gland.
• Hippocampus: Memory formation and spatial navigation.
• Amygdala: Emotion, fear, and aggression.
• Corpus Callosum: Connects brain hemispheres.
• Occipital Lobes: Visual processing.
• Temporal Lobes: Auditory processing, memory.
• Parietal Lobes: Sensory processing (touch, temperature, spatial awareness).
• Association Areas: Higher-level mental functions (thinking, memory).
• Somatosensory Cortex: Processes touch sensations.
• Frontal Lobes: Decision-making, problem-solving, motor function.
• Linguistic Processing: Language comprehension and production.
• Higher-Order Thinking: Complex cognitive processes.
• Executive Functioning: Goal-setting, planning, and impulse control.
• Prefrontal Cortex: Goal-setting and higher-order thinking.
• Motor Cortex: Voluntary muscle movements.
• Split Brain Research: Studies on individuals with severed corpus callosum.
• Hemispheric Specialization: Specialized functions in each brain hemisphere.
• Broca's Area: Speech production.
• Wernicke's Area: Language comprehension.
• Aphasia (Broca's and Wernicke's): Language disorders.
• Contralateral Hemispheric Organization: Each hemisphere controls opposite body side.
• Plasticity: Brain's ability to reorganize and create new connections.
• EEG (Electroencephalogram): Measures electrical activity.
• fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Measures brain activity.
• Lesioning: Intentionally damaging brain tissue.

Sleep

• Consciousness: Awareness of surroundings, thoughts, and experiences.
• Circadian Rhythm: Body’s natural 24-hour cycle.
• Jet Lag: Disrupted circadian rhythm from rapid travel.
• Shift Work: Work schedules disrupting the sleep cycle.
• NREM Stage 1: Lightest stage of sleep.
• Hypnagogic Sensations: Sensory experiences when falling asleep.
• NREM Stage 2: Deeper sleep with slower brain waves.
• NREM Stage 3: Deep sleep, restorative stage.
• REM Sleep: Sleep with rapid eye movements.
• REM Rebound: Increased REM sleep after sleep deprivation.
• Activation-Synthesis (Dreams): Brain's attempts to make sense of neural activity.
• Consolidation Theory (Dreams): Dreams aiding memory processing.
• Memory Consolidation: Stabilizing and storing memories.
• Restoration of Resources: Sleep for energy and bodily function restoration.
• Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep.
• Narcolepsy: Excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden sleep attacks.
• REM Sleep Behavior Disorder: Acting out dreams during REM sleep.
• Sleep Apnea: Brief interruptions in breathing during sleep.
• Somnambulism (sleepwalking):

Psychoactive Drugs

• Psychoactive Drugs: Substances altering perception, mood, or consciousness.
• Agonists: Drugs enhancing neurotransmitter effects.
• Antagonists: Drugs blocking neurotransmitter effects.
• Reuptake Inhibitors: Drugs preventing neurotransmitter reabsorption.
• Stimulants: Increasing neural activity (e.g., caffeine, cocaine).
• Caffeine: Blocking adenosine receptors.
• Cocaine: Increasing dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin.
• Depressants: Decreasing neural activity (e.g., alcohol, benzodiazepines).
• Alcohol: Slowing neural processing, impairing judgment.
• Hallucinogens: Distorting sensory perception (e.g., LSD, mushrooms).
• Marijuana Psychoactive drug altering sensory perception.
• Opioids: Pain relief and euphoria (e.g., heroin, morphine).
• Heroin: Intense euphoria and addictive opioid.
• Tolerance: Increasing drug dosage for same effect.
• Addiction: Compulsive drug use, loss of control.
• Withdrawal: Physical and psychological symptoms from stopping drug use.

Hormones

• Hormones: Chemical messengers regulating body functions.
• Adrenaline: Hormone for "fight or flight" response.
• Leptin: Regulates energy balance.
• Ghrelin: Stimulates hunger.
• Melatonin: Regulates the sleep-wake cycle.
• Oxytocin: Involved in bonding and social interactions.