Psychology: Classical Conditioning
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary focus of the 'easy problem' of consciousness?

  • Why consciousness exists at all
  • The mechanisms of consciousness (correct)
  • The effects of anesthesia on awareness
  • The subjective experience of awareness

Which method involves presenting two different images to each eye, leading to alternating perceptions?

  • Binocular Rivalry (correct)
  • Aphantasia
  • Flash Suppression
  • Stroop Task

What does the pain of exclusion refer to?

  • Physical distress from injury
  • Loss of consciousness during surgery
  • Social rejection causing emotional distress (correct)
  • Anxiety from academic performance

In the context of measuring conscious awareness, what does 'masking' refer to?

<p>Presenting a brief stimulus followed by a longer one (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What finding was observed in participants excluded from the Cyberball game?

<p>Increased activity in areas associated with physical pain (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes patients in a vegetative state?

<p>They may show sleep-wake cycles but lack awareness (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Stroop Task primarily demonstrate?

<p>The interference of automatic and controlled processing (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what way does anesthesia affect consciousness?

<p>It blocks awareness and sensation temporarily (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which brain structure is primarily involved in forming memories related to personal experiences?

<p>Hippocampus (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of grid cells in the brain?

<p>Helping with spatial navigation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which brain region is primarily associated with number processing in individuals with dyscalculia?

<p>Parietal lobe (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common characteristic of dyscalculia?

<p>Struggles with number sense. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What differentiates retrograde amnesia from anterograde amnesia?

<p>Inability to recall past memories versus inability to form new memories (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition is characterized by an inability to visualize mental images?

<p>Aphantasia (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does math anxiety affect brain activity?

<p>It often leads to overactivation in emotional brain regions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term best describes the awareness of oneself and one's environment?

<p>Consciousness (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory loss is primarily seen in individuals with severely deficient autobiographical memory (SDAM)?

<p>Difficulty recalling personal experiences (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What structural aspect is linked to both dyslexia and dyscalculia?

<p>Differences in brain connectivity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What typically causes Korsakoff's Syndrome?

<p>Thiamine deficiency related to alcoholism (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of dementia specifically affects personality and behavior?

<p>Frontotemporal Dementia (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what way does the brain adapt areas for mathematical tasks?

<p>By repurposing regions used for spatial reasoning (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What cognitive challenge is commonly faced by individuals with dyslexia?

<p>Struggles in phonological processing. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is typically affected in dementia concerning cognitive function?

<p>Decline in memory and other cognitive abilities (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes a vegetative state in relation to awareness?

<p>No awareness of self or environment. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the 'hard problem' of consciousness?

<p>Comprehending why consciousness exists at all. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Masking involves presenting a longer stimulus followed by a brief one to obscure awareness.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term describes individuals who cannot visualize images in their mind?

<p>Aphantasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

The experience of increased brain activity in response to social exclusion, similar to physical pain, was observed in the ______ game.

<p>Cyberball</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms related to consciousness with their definitions:

<p>Aphantasia = Inability to visualize mental images Stroop Task = Test of automatic vs controlled processing Anesthesia = Temporary loss of awareness and sensation Binocular Rivalry = Two images presented to each eye causing alternating perceptions</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the capacity of short-term memory?

<p>About 7 items (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Sensory memory retains information for several minutes.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process transforms short-term memories into long-term memories?

<p>Consolidation</p> Signup and view all the answers

______ memory includes personal experiences and specific events.

<p>Episodic</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of memory involves skills and tasks that we perform automatically?

<p>Procedural Memory (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of memory with their definitions:

<p>Explicit Memory = Memories we can consciously recall Implicit Memory = Memories that influence behavior unconsciously Declarative Memory = Facts and events we can verbally express Flashbulb Memories = Vivid memories of significant events</p> Signup and view all the answers

The hippocampus is not involved in the consolidation of memories.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What brain region is crucial for navigation and remembering locations?

<p>Hippocampus</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashbulb memories are detailed and vivid memories of ________ events.

<p>significant</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which brain region is primarily involved in language processing related to reading?

<p>Temporal lobe (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Dyscalculia is a learning disorder associated with mathematical difficulties.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the brain's ability to repurpose existing neural circuits for new functions?

<p>Neuronal Recycling Hypothesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

Individuals with dyslexia often struggle with __________ processing.

<p>phonological</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which key area of the brain is involved in number processing?

<p>Parietal lobe (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following learning disorders with their primary difficulties:

<p>Dyslexia = Phonological processing Dyscalculia = Number sense and calculation Math Anxiety = Fear of math Visual Processing Disorder = Difficulty in recognizing visual information</p> Signup and view all the answers

Math anxiety leads to an underactivation of emotional brain regions.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What essential skills develop through practice and exposure to language?

<p>Reading skills</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the brain adapts for mathematical tasks from spatial reasoning?

<p>Prefrontal cortex (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The brain is thought to change __________ and function through exposure to language.

<p>structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the left hemisphere of the brain?

<p>Language processing (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres of the brain allowing them to communicate.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens when the corpus callosum is damaged?

<p>Split-brain symptoms occur.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The _____ commissure connects the hippocampi of both hemispheres.

<p>hippocampal</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the brain areas with their respective functions:

<p>Broca's area = Speech production Wernicke's area = Language comprehension Corpus callosum = Connects hemispheres Anterior commissure = Pathway for hemisphere communication</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hemisphere is typically linked to spatial abilities?

<p>Right hemisphere (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The sensitive period for language learning occurs primarily in adulthood.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Name one memory category mentioned in the content.

<p>Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory, explicit memory, implicit memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Each hemisphere processes visual information from the _____ side of the visual field.

<p>opposite</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes split-brain patients?

<p>Each hemisphere can operate independently. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which area of the brain is crucial for learning conditioned responses like eye-blinking?

<p>Lateral Interpositus Nucleus (LIP) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Red Nucleus is where memories are primarily stored.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of learning is operant conditioning primarily associated with?

<p>Behavior controlled by consequences</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the Skinner box, an animal can press a lever to receive food as a form of __________.

<p>reward</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms related to reinforcement and punishment:

<p>Positive Reinforcement = Adding something pleasant to increase a behavior Negative Reinforcement = Removing something unpleasant to increase a behavior Positive Punishment = Adding something unpleasant to decrease a behavior Negative Punishment = Removing something pleasant to decrease a behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of continuous reinforcement?

<p>Reinforcing every time a desired behavior occurs (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Intermittent reinforcement means giving a reward every time the desired behavior occurs.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which brain area is crucial for learning conditioned responses like eye-blinking?

<p>Lateral Interpositus Nucleus (LIP) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Red Nucleus is responsible for storing memories related to classical conditioning.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of operant conditioning?

<p>Behavior controlled by consequences</p> Signup and view all the answers

In operant conditioning, __________ reinforcement involves adding something pleasant to increase a behavior.

<p>positive</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of reinforcement and punishment with their definitions:

<p>Positive Reinforcement = Adding something pleasant to increase behavior Negative Reinforcement = Removing something unpleasant to increase behavior Positive Punishment = Adding something unpleasant to decrease behavior Negative Punishment = Removing something pleasant to decrease behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Skinner Box study primarily focus on?

<p>Operant conditioning (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Continuous reinforcement means giving a reward only some of the time when the desired behavior occurs.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of antidepressant specifically increases serotonin levels?

<p>SSRIs (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Antidepressants are always effective in treating depression for every individual.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What protein is associated with neuron growth and is linked to depression when found at low levels?

<p>Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Regular ______ can improve mood and reduce symptoms of depression.

<p>exercise</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match each type of bipolar disorder with its characteristic:

<p>Bipolar I = At least one manic episode Bipolar II = At least one major depressive episode and one hypomanic episode Cyclothymic Disorder = Chronic fluctuations of mood Other Specified Bipolar and Related Disorders = Bipolar symptoms that do not match other categories</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of dopamine when a behavior is rewarded?

<p>To induce pleasure (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Statistical learning involves recognizing sensory information without any context.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process increases the efficiency of the brain by forming new connections and pruning unused ones during development?

<p>Neural development</p> Signup and view all the answers

Perceptual learning allows individuals to learn to recognize and interpret _______ information.

<p>sensory</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of learning with their definitions:

<p>Statistical Learning = Learning patterns and regularities in the environment Positive Reinforcement = Activation of the brain's reward system through rewards Relational Learning = Understanding relationships between different pieces of information Perceptual Learning = Recognizing and interpreting sensory information</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does operant conditioning play in behavior modification?

<p>It emphasizes the influence of rewards and punishments. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Children learn language by solely memorizing words without recognizing patterns.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of learning helps individuals understand complex ideas and make inferences?

<p>Relational learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

The brain's reward system includes structures like the nucleus _____________ and the ventral tegmental area (VTA).

<p>accumbens</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of neurons activate in response to specific times?

<p>Time Cells (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Semantic dementia primarily affects personal memories.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition is characterized by the inability to form new memories after a brain injury?

<p>Anterograde Amnesia</p> Signup and view all the answers

Korsakoff's Syndrome is often related to a deficiency in __________.

<p>thiamine</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of amnesia with their definitions:

<p>Retrograde Amnesia = Inability to recall past memories Anterograde Amnesia = Inability to form new memories Infantile Amnesia = Inability to remember early childhood events Severely Deficient Autobiographical Memory = Difficulty recalling personal experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which brain region is crucial for forming new memories?

<p>Hippocampus (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Aphantasia allows individuals to visualize mental images.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory loss is characterized by an inability to remember events before an injury?

<p>Retrograde Amnesia</p> Signup and view all the answers

People with ___________ can remember factual information but struggle with recalling personal experiences.

<p>Severely Deficient Autobiographical Memory (SDAM)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition is specifically caused by a thiamine deficiency?

<p>Korsakoff's Syndrome (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hemisphere of the brain is primarily associated with language skills?

<p>Left Hemisphere (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The corpus callosum is responsible for preventing communication between the brain's hemispheres.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the anterior commissure play in the brain?

<p>It serves as a pathway for communication between the two hemispheres.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The left hemisphere is linked to primarily _____ abilities while the right hemisphere is associated with language.

<p>spatial</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms related to brain structure with their functions:

<p>Corpus Callosum = Connects the two hemispheres Hippocampal Commissure = Connects the hippocampi of both hemispheres Broca's Area = Speech production Wernicke's Area = Language comprehension</p> Signup and view all the answers

What symptoms might arise if the corpus callosum is damaged?

<p>Split-brain symptoms (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Each ear sends information to both hemispheres, with each hemisphere focusing more on the ear on the same side.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the sensitive period in relation to learning a language?

<p>The sensitive period is the critical time in early childhood when learning language is easiest.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The _____ hemispheres of the brain have specialized functions.

<p>right and left</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT considered a type of memory?

<p>Autonomous Memory (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Hard Problem of Consciousness

Understanding why consciousness exists, the subjective experience of awareness.

Easy Problem of Consciousness

Understanding how consciousness works, the mechanisms of brain processing.

Flash Suppression

A technique where a strong visual stimulus reduces awareness of a weaker one.

Stroop Task

A test showing how automatic processes (reading) interfere with controlled processes (naming colors).

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Anesthesia

A medical procedure that temporarily blocks awareness and sensation during surgery.

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Cyberball Game

A virtual ball-tossing game used to study social exclusion and its perceived pain.

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Vegetative State

A condition where a patient shows no signs of awareness, but may have sleep-wake cycles and respond to some stimuli (without awareness).

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Pain of Exclusion

The emotional distress caused by social rejection or isolation, perceived as similar to physical pain.

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Place Cells

Neurons in the hippocampus that activate when in a specific location.

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Grid Cells

Neurons in the entorhinal cortex forming a grid pattern for spatial navigation.

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Basal Ganglia Role

Learning habits and skills, like riding a bike.

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Autobiographical Memory

Memory of personal experiences and events forming identity.

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Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to recall past memories before injury.

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Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories after injury.

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Infantile Amnesia

Inability to recall early childhood memories.

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Korsakoff's Syndrome

Severe memory problems due to thiamine deficiency, often from alcoholism.

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Neuronal Recycling Hypothesis

The brain adapts existing neural circuits for new functions.

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Reading Brain Regions

Occipital (vision), temporal (language), and parietal (integration) lobes are key.

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Dyslexia

A learning disorder affecting reading ability, linked to brain differences.

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Math Brain Regions

Parietal lobe (numbers) and prefrontal cortex (problem-solving) are involved.

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Dyscalculia

Learning disorder affecting math abilities, linked to brain function issues.

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Retrieval (Math)

Recalling known math facts (e.g., multiplication tables).

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Calculation (Math)

Solving math problems step-by-step.

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Consciousness

Awareness of self and environment; thoughts, feelings, perceptions.

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Lateral Interpositus Nucleus (LIP)

A specific area in the cerebellum crucial for learning conditioned responses like eye-blinking in classical conditioning.

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Red Nucleus

The area involved in executing learned responses, but not where the memory is stored.

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Operant Conditioning

A type of learning where behavior is controlled by its consequences, using rewards and punishments to increase or decrease a behavior.

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Skinner Box

A controlled environment used to study operant conditioning, where an animal can learn to perform actions for rewards.

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Positive Reinforcement

Adding something pleasant to increase a behavior.

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Negative Reinforcement

Removing something unpleasant to increase a behavior.

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Continuous Reinforcement

Giving a reward every time a desired behavior occurs.

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Sensory Memory

The brief storage system that holds sensory information for a very short time (usually less than a second). It allows us to retain impressions of sights, sounds, and other sensory experiences just long enough to process them.

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Short-Term / Working Memory

The temporary storage system that holds a limited amount of information (about 7 items) for a short period (about 18 seconds). Working memory is a type of short-term memory that allows us to actively manipulate and use this information.

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Long-Term Memory

The system that stores information for extended periods, potentially for a lifetime. Long-term memory can be divided into two main types: explicit (consciously recalled) and implicit (unconsciously recalled).

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Explicit Memory

Memories that we can consciously recall and describe. We can use words to express these memories.

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Implicit Memory

Memories that we cannot consciously recall but that still influence our behavior. They operate without our awareness.

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Hippocampus

A brain region crucial for forming new long-term memories, especially for consolidating memories from short-term to long-term storage.

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Consolidation

The process of transforming short-term memories into long-term memories. This involves stabilizing and strengthening the memory traces in the brain, often occurring during sleep.

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Flashbulb Memories

Detailed, vivid memories of significant events, like where you were during a major news event. They feel very clear and accurate, even if they may not be completely correct.

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Visual Spatial Memory

The ability to remember locations and navigate through space, involving the hippocampus.

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Asymmetry of the Brain

The human brain is not symmetrical; each hemisphere has specialized functions, with the left usually focusing on language and the right on spatial abilities.

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Lateralization

The specialization of the left and right hemispheres of the brain for different functions.

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Corpus Callosum

A thick band of nerve fibers connecting the two hemispheres and allowing them to communicate.

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Split-Brain Symptoms

Occur when the corpus callosum is damaged, preventing communication between hemispheres, leading to independent actions on each side.

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Visual Connections

Each hemisphere processes visual information from the opposite side of the visual field.

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Auditory Connections

Each ear sends sound to both hemispheres, but each hemisphere pays more attention to the opposite ear.

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Broca's Area

A brain region primarily in the left hemisphere responsible for speech production.

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Wernicke's Area

A brain region primarily in the left hemisphere responsible for language comprehension.

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Evolution of Language

The process of how human language developed over time and the factors that influenced its growth, like gestures and sounds.

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Sensitive Period for Language

A critical period during early childhood when language learning is easiest and most effective.

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Neuronal Recycling

The brain's ability to repurpose existing neural circuits for new functions, adapting them to new tasks.

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Reading Brain: Key Regions

The occipital lobe (vision), temporal lobe (language), and parietal lobe (sensory integration) are crucial for reading.

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Math Brain: Key Regions

The parietal lobe (number processing) and prefrontal cortex (problem-solving) are important for math skills.

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Math Anxiety

A feeling of fear or apprehension about math, which can negatively impact performance, often involving overactivation of emotional brain regions.

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Structural Connectivity Differences

Both dyslexia and dyscalculia may involve differences in the brain's structure and connectivity, affecting how information is processed.

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What is Binocular Rivalry?

A situation where different images are presented to each eye, leading to alternating perceptions of the two images.

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What is the 'Hard Problem' of Consciousness?

Understanding why consciousness exists in the first place - the subjective experience of awareness, like feeling pain or experiencing joy.

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What is Aphantasia?

A condition where individuals are unable to visualize images in their minds. They can't 'see' things in their head.

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What is 'Top-Down' Attention?

Intentionally focusing on specific stimuli, like looking for a friend in a crowd.

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What is 'Bottom-Up' Attention?

Reacting to unexpected stimuli, like noticing a deer running past.

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Statistical Learning

Learning patterns in the environment, like sounds in language or visual patterns. For example, noticing which sounds often occur together.

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Perceptual Learning

Learning to recognize and interpret sensory information. For example, a musician learning to distinguish between different musical notes.

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Relational Learning

Understanding relationships between different pieces of information, like learning that dogs are pets.

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What is memory consolidation?

The process of transforming short-term memories into long-term memories. It strengthens the memory traces in the brain, often during sleep.

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What is the role of the hippocampus in memory?

It's crucial for forming new long-term memories, especially for consolidating memories from short-term to long-term storage.

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What are flashbulb memories?

Detailed, vivid memories of significant events, like where you were during a major news event. They feel very accurate but can contain errors.

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What is the brain's reward system?

Positive reinforcement activates reward areas in the brain, releasing dopamine which makes us feel good, thus reinforcing the behavior.

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What is the difference between retrograde and anterograde amnesia?

Retrograde amnesia affects memories before the injury, while anterograde amnesia affects memories after the injury.

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What is MDD?

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is a mood disorder characterized by persistent sadness, loss of interest, and other symptoms that significantly interfere with daily life.

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What is the Monoamine Hypothesis?

This hypothesis suggests that depression is caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain, specifically low levels of neurotransmitters like serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine.

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What are SSRIs?

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) are a type of antidepressant that increase serotonin levels in the brain by preventing its reabsorption, leading to improved mood.

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What is BDNF?

Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) is a protein that promotes the growth and survival of neurons, and lower levels are associated with depression.

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What is Bipolar Disorder?

A mood disorder characterized by extreme mood swings, including periods of intense highs (mania) and lows (depression).

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Place Cells & Time Cells

Neurons in the hippocampus that activate in response to specific locations (place cells) or specific times (time cells).

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Basal Ganglia: What's their role?

A group of structures involved in learning skills and habits, like riding a bike or playing an instrument.

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Dementia

A decline in cognitive function, including memory loss.

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Brain Asymmetry

The human brain isn't perfectly symmetrical. Each half (hemisphere) has specialized roles.

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Language Specialization

Areas in the left hemisphere (like Broca's and Wernicke's) are important for speaking and understanding language.

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Study Notes

Classical Conditioning

  • Definition: A learning process where a person or animal associates one stimulus with another
  • Pavlov's Experiment: Pavlov observed dogs salivating at the sight of food. He rang a bell before giving food. Eventually, the dogs started salivating at the bell's sound, even without food. This showed association learning.
  • Extinction/Desensitization: Extinction occurs when a conditioned response fades away if the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus. Desensitization is a therapy technique that involves gradual exposure to a feared stimulus with no negative consequences, reducing fear over time.
  • Pavlov's Proposal: Learning through association. A neutral stimulus (e.g., bell) becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food) to produce a conditioned response (e.g., salivation.).
  • Engrams: Physical changes in the brain that represent memories. Thought to be the actual location of memories in the brain.
  • Lashley's Research: Lashley cut parts of rats' brains to see where memories were stored, finding that memories aren't located in one specific area but distributed throughout the brain.
  • Equipotentiality: All parts of the brain can contribute to learning, any part of the brain can help with learning if one part is damaged.

Operant Conditioning

  • Definition: Learning where behavior is controlled by its consequences (rewards and punishments)
  • Skinner Box: A controlled environment where animals (rats, pigeons) learn through operant conditioning by interacting with the environment. They learn to associate certain behaviors with rewards, like pressing a lever for food.

Summary of Learning Types

  • Operant conditioning focuses on how rewards and punishments influence behavior.
  • Classical conditioning focuses on associations between stimuli.

Subtypes of Memory

  • Sensory memory: brief storage of sensory information (sights, sounds, etc.).
  • Short-term/Working memory: temporary storage that holds a limited amount of information and allows us to actively manipulate it.
  • Long-term memory: information stored for a longer period.
    • Explicit memory: consciously recalled memories
      • Declarative memory: facts and events we can describe
        • Episodic memory: personal experiences
        • Semantic memory: general knowledge
    • Implicit memory: memories influencing behavior without conscious recall
      • Procedural memory: skills and tasks we perform automatically.
  • Flashbulb memories: detailed, vivid memories of significant events; they may not be entirely accurate.

Memory in the Brain (Regions + Connectivity)

  • Different brain regions are responsible for different memory types and their connections to each other.

Hippocampus

  • Plays a crucial role in forming new long-term declarative memories.
  • Involved in spatial navigation and remembering locations.
  • Connects to other brain areas to consolidate memories.

Mass Action

  • The brain works as a whole and learning is a collective process that involves several brain regions.
  • More brain tissue leads to better learning and memory.
  • The more brain tissue available, the better the learning and memory.
  • Aphantasia: The inability to create mental images in the mind.
  • Amnesia: loss of memory, typically due to brain injury or disease.
    • Retrograde amnesia:loss of memories from before an injury.
    • Anterograde amnesia: inability to form new memories after an injury
  • Korsakoff's syndrome: memory disorder related to thiamine deficiency, often caused by alcoholism
  • Dementia: a decline in cognitive function, including memory loss, affecting daily life and functioning.
  • Dyslexia: Learning disorder affecting reading ability, difficulties with connecting sounds to letters.
  • Dyscalculia: Learning disorder affecting mathematical abilities.
  • Retrieval: Recalling previously learned facts (e.g., multiplication tables).
  • Calculation: Solving problems step-by-step.
  • Consciousness: awareness of oneself and the environment, related to thoughts, feelings and perceptions.
  • Attention: focus on specific stimuli, top-down (intentional) and bottom-up (reacts to unexpected stimuli).

Mental Illness

  • Mental illness: conditions that affect mood, thinking, and behavior, disrupting daily life.
  • Common myths associated with mental illness (e.g., those with mental illness are violent or weak).
  • Comorbidity: presence of two or more disorders or illnesses in one person.
  • Mood disorders like Major Depressive Disorder (MDD).
  • Bipolar Disorder: characterized by extreme mood swings, including periods of mania and depression.
    • Subtypes: Bipolar I and II, Cyclothymia
  • Schizophrenia: a severe mental disorder characterized by distorted thinking, perceptions, emotions, and behavior.

Treatment Options

  • Antipsychotics: Drugs that reduce the symptoms of schizophrenia and other similar conditions, by altering neurotransmitter functioning. Several generations, with varying effects and side effects.

Brain Asymmetry

  • The human brain is not symmetrical.
  • Each hemisphere has different specialized functions like Broca's and Wernicke's regions for language or other specific functions
  • Lateralization impacts specific brain functions.

Split-Brain Patients

  • Patients who have had their corpus callosum severed.
  • This can result in unique behaviors and responses.
  • The two hemispheres of the brain are isolated.

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