Psychology: Classical Conditioning
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary focus of the 'easy problem' of consciousness?

  • Why consciousness exists at all
  • The mechanisms of consciousness (correct)
  • The effects of anesthesia on awareness
  • The subjective experience of awareness

    • Which method involves presenting two different images to each eye, leading to alternating perceptions?

  • Binocular Rivalry (correct)
  • Aphantasia
  • Flash Suppression
  • Stroop Task

    • What does the pain of exclusion refer to?

  • Physical distress from injury
  • Loss of consciousness during surgery
  • Social rejection causing emotional distress (correct)
  • Anxiety from academic performance

    • In the context of measuring conscious awareness, what does 'masking' refer to?

    <p>Presenting a brief stimulus followed by a longer one</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What finding was observed in participants excluded from the Cyberball game?

    <p>Increased activity in areas associated with physical pain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes patients in a vegetative state?

    <p>They may show sleep-wake cycles but lack awareness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Stroop Task primarily demonstrate?

    <p>The interference of automatic and controlled processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way does anesthesia affect consciousness?

    <p>It blocks awareness and sensation temporarily</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain structure is primarily involved in forming memories related to personal experiences?

    <p>Hippocampus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of grid cells in the brain?

    <p>Helping with spatial navigation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain region is primarily associated with number processing in individuals with dyscalculia?

    <p>Parietal lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common characteristic of dyscalculia?

    <p>Struggles with number sense.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What differentiates retrograde amnesia from anterograde amnesia?

    <p>Inability to recall past memories versus inability to form new memories</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition is characterized by an inability to visualize mental images?

    <p>Aphantasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does math anxiety affect brain activity?

    <p>It often leads to overactivation in emotional brain regions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term best describes the awareness of oneself and one's environment?

    <p>Consciousness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of memory loss is primarily seen in individuals with severely deficient autobiographical memory (SDAM)?

    <p>Difficulty recalling personal experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structural aspect is linked to both dyslexia and dyscalculia?

    <p>Differences in brain connectivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What typically causes Korsakoff's Syndrome?

    <p>Thiamine deficiency related to alcoholism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of dementia specifically affects personality and behavior?

    <p>Frontotemporal Dementia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way does the brain adapt areas for mathematical tasks?

    <p>By repurposing regions used for spatial reasoning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What cognitive challenge is commonly faced by individuals with dyslexia?

    <p>Struggles in phonological processing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is typically affected in dementia concerning cognitive function?

    <p>Decline in memory and other cognitive abilities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes a vegetative state in relation to awareness?

    <p>No awareness of self or environment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the 'hard problem' of consciousness?

    <p>Comprehending why consciousness exists at all.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Masking involves presenting a longer stimulus followed by a brief one to obscure awareness.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes individuals who cannot visualize images in their mind?

    <p>Aphantasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The experience of increased brain activity in response to social exclusion, similar to physical pain, was observed in the ______ game.

    <p>Cyberball</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms related to consciousness with their definitions:

    <p>Aphantasia = Inability to visualize mental images Stroop Task = Test of automatic vs controlled processing Anesthesia = Temporary loss of awareness and sensation Binocular Rivalry = Two images presented to each eye causing alternating perceptions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the capacity of short-term memory?

    <p>About 7 items</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sensory memory retains information for several minutes.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process transforms short-term memories into long-term memories?

    <p>Consolidation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ______ memory includes personal experiences and specific events.

    <p>Episodic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of memory involves skills and tasks that we perform automatically?

    <p>Procedural Memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of memory with their definitions:

    <p>Explicit Memory = Memories we can consciously recall Implicit Memory = Memories that influence behavior unconsciously Declarative Memory = Facts and events we can verbally express Flashbulb Memories = Vivid memories of significant events</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The hippocampus is not involved in the consolidation of memories.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What brain region is crucial for navigation and remembering locations?

    <p>Hippocampus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Flashbulb memories are detailed and vivid memories of ________ events.

    <p>significant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain region is primarily involved in language processing related to reading?

    <p>Temporal lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Dyscalculia is a learning disorder associated with mathematical difficulties.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the brain's ability to repurpose existing neural circuits for new functions?

    <p>Neuronal Recycling Hypothesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Individuals with dyslexia often struggle with __________ processing.

    <p>phonological</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which key area of the brain is involved in number processing?

    <p>Parietal lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following learning disorders with their primary difficulties:

    <p>Dyslexia = Phonological processing Dyscalculia = Number sense and calculation Math Anxiety = Fear of math Visual Processing Disorder = Difficulty in recognizing visual information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Math anxiety leads to an underactivation of emotional brain regions.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What essential skills develop through practice and exposure to language?

    <p>Reading skills</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain adapts for mathematical tasks from spatial reasoning?

    <p>Prefrontal cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The brain is thought to change __________ and function through exposure to language.

    <p>structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the left hemisphere of the brain?

    <p>Language processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres of the brain allowing them to communicate.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when the corpus callosum is damaged?

    <p>Split-brain symptoms occur.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _____ commissure connects the hippocampi of both hemispheres.

    <p>hippocampal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the brain areas with their respective functions:

    <p>Broca's area = Speech production Wernicke's area = Language comprehension Corpus callosum = Connects hemispheres Anterior commissure = Pathway for hemisphere communication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hemisphere is typically linked to spatial abilities?

    <p>Right hemisphere</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The sensitive period for language learning occurs primarily in adulthood.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one memory category mentioned in the content.

    <p>Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory, explicit memory, implicit memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Each hemisphere processes visual information from the _____ side of the visual field.

    <p>opposite</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes split-brain patients?

    <p>Each hemisphere can operate independently.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area of the brain is crucial for learning conditioned responses like eye-blinking?

    <p>Lateral Interpositus Nucleus (LIP)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Red Nucleus is where memories are primarily stored.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of learning is operant conditioning primarily associated with?

    <p>Behavior controlled by consequences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the Skinner box, an animal can press a lever to receive food as a form of __________.

    <p>reward</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms related to reinforcement and punishment:

    <p>Positive Reinforcement = Adding something pleasant to increase a behavior Negative Reinforcement = Removing something unpleasant to increase a behavior Positive Punishment = Adding something unpleasant to decrease a behavior Negative Punishment = Removing something pleasant to decrease a behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of continuous reinforcement?

    <p>Reinforcing every time a desired behavior occurs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Intermittent reinforcement means giving a reward every time the desired behavior occurs.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain area is crucial for learning conditioned responses like eye-blinking?

    <p>Lateral Interpositus Nucleus (LIP)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Red Nucleus is responsible for storing memories related to classical conditioning.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of operant conditioning?

    <p>Behavior controlled by consequences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In operant conditioning, __________ reinforcement involves adding something pleasant to increase a behavior.

    <p>positive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of reinforcement and punishment with their definitions:

    <p>Positive Reinforcement = Adding something pleasant to increase behavior Negative Reinforcement = Removing something unpleasant to increase behavior Positive Punishment = Adding something unpleasant to decrease behavior Negative Punishment = Removing something pleasant to decrease behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Skinner Box study primarily focus on?

    <p>Operant conditioning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Continuous reinforcement means giving a reward only some of the time when the desired behavior occurs.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of antidepressant specifically increases serotonin levels?

    <p>SSRIs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Antidepressants are always effective in treating depression for every individual.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What protein is associated with neuron growth and is linked to depression when found at low levels?

    <p>Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Regular ______ can improve mood and reduce symptoms of depression.

    <p>exercise</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match each type of bipolar disorder with its characteristic:

    <p>Bipolar I = At least one manic episode Bipolar II = At least one major depressive episode and one hypomanic episode Cyclothymic Disorder = Chronic fluctuations of mood Other Specified Bipolar and Related Disorders = Bipolar symptoms that do not match other categories</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of dopamine when a behavior is rewarded?

    <p>To induce pleasure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Statistical learning involves recognizing sensory information without any context.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process increases the efficiency of the brain by forming new connections and pruning unused ones during development?

    <p>Neural development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Perceptual learning allows individuals to learn to recognize and interpret _______ information.

    <p>sensory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of learning with their definitions:

    <p>Statistical Learning = Learning patterns and regularities in the environment Positive Reinforcement = Activation of the brain's reward system through rewards Relational Learning = Understanding relationships between different pieces of information Perceptual Learning = Recognizing and interpreting sensory information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does operant conditioning play in behavior modification?

    <p>It emphasizes the influence of rewards and punishments.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Children learn language by solely memorizing words without recognizing patterns.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of learning helps individuals understand complex ideas and make inferences?

    <p>Relational learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The brain's reward system includes structures like the nucleus _____________ and the ventral tegmental area (VTA).

    <p>accumbens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of neurons activate in response to specific times?

    <p>Time Cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Semantic dementia primarily affects personal memories.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition is characterized by the inability to form new memories after a brain injury?

    <p>Anterograde Amnesia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Korsakoff's Syndrome is often related to a deficiency in __________.

    <p>thiamine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of amnesia with their definitions:

    <p>Retrograde Amnesia = Inability to recall past memories Anterograde Amnesia = Inability to form new memories Infantile Amnesia = Inability to remember early childhood events Severely Deficient Autobiographical Memory = Difficulty recalling personal experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain region is crucial for forming new memories?

    <p>Hippocampus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Aphantasia allows individuals to visualize mental images.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of memory loss is characterized by an inability to remember events before an injury?

    <p>Retrograde Amnesia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    People with ___________ can remember factual information but struggle with recalling personal experiences.

    <p>Severely Deficient Autobiographical Memory (SDAM)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition is specifically caused by a thiamine deficiency?

    <p>Korsakoff's Syndrome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hemisphere of the brain is primarily associated with language skills?

    <p>Left Hemisphere</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The corpus callosum is responsible for preventing communication between the brain's hemispheres.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the anterior commissure play in the brain?

    <p>It serves as a pathway for communication between the two hemispheres.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The left hemisphere is linked to primarily _____ abilities while the right hemisphere is associated with language.

    <p>spatial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms related to brain structure with their functions:

    <p>Corpus Callosum = Connects the two hemispheres Hippocampal Commissure = Connects the hippocampi of both hemispheres Broca's Area = Speech production Wernicke's Area = Language comprehension</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What symptoms might arise if the corpus callosum is damaged?

    <p>Split-brain symptoms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Each ear sends information to both hemispheres, with each hemisphere focusing more on the ear on the same side.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the sensitive period in relation to learning a language?

    <p>The sensitive period is the critical time in early childhood when learning language is easiest.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _____ hemispheres of the brain have specialized functions.

    <p>right and left</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT considered a type of memory?

    <p>Autonomous Memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Classical Conditioning

    • Definition: A learning process where a person or animal associates one stimulus with another
    • Pavlov's Experiment: Pavlov observed dogs salivating at the sight of food. He rang a bell before giving food. Eventually, the dogs started salivating at the bell's sound, even without food. This showed association learning.
    • Extinction/Desensitization: Extinction occurs when a conditioned response fades away if the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus. Desensitization is a therapy technique that involves gradual exposure to a feared stimulus with no negative consequences, reducing fear over time.
    • Pavlov's Proposal: Learning through association. A neutral stimulus (e.g., bell) becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food) to produce a conditioned response (e.g., salivation.).
    • Engrams: Physical changes in the brain that represent memories. Thought to be the actual location of memories in the brain.
    • Lashley's Research: Lashley cut parts of rats' brains to see where memories were stored, finding that memories aren't located in one specific area but distributed throughout the brain.
    • Equipotentiality: All parts of the brain can contribute to learning, any part of the brain can help with learning if one part is damaged.

    Operant Conditioning

    • Definition: Learning where behavior is controlled by its consequences (rewards and punishments)
    • Skinner Box: A controlled environment where animals (rats, pigeons) learn through operant conditioning by interacting with the environment. They learn to associate certain behaviors with rewards, like pressing a lever for food.

    Summary of Learning Types

    • Operant conditioning focuses on how rewards and punishments influence behavior.
    • Classical conditioning focuses on associations between stimuli.

    Subtypes of Memory

    • Sensory memory: brief storage of sensory information (sights, sounds, etc.).
    • Short-term/Working memory: temporary storage that holds a limited amount of information and allows us to actively manipulate it.
    • Long-term memory: information stored for a longer period.
      • Explicit memory: consciously recalled memories
        • Declarative memory: facts and events we can describe
          • Episodic memory: personal experiences
          • Semantic memory: general knowledge
      • Implicit memory: memories influencing behavior without conscious recall
        • Procedural memory: skills and tasks we perform automatically.
    • Flashbulb memories: detailed, vivid memories of significant events; they may not be entirely accurate.

    Memory in the Brain (Regions + Connectivity)

    • Different brain regions are responsible for different memory types and their connections to each other.

    Hippocampus

    • Plays a crucial role in forming new long-term declarative memories.
    • Involved in spatial navigation and remembering locations.
    • Connects to other brain areas to consolidate memories.

    Mass Action

    • The brain works as a whole and learning is a collective process that involves several brain regions.
    • More brain tissue leads to better learning and memory.
    • The more brain tissue available, the better the learning and memory.
    • Aphantasia: The inability to create mental images in the mind.
    • Amnesia: loss of memory, typically due to brain injury or disease.
      • Retrograde amnesia:loss of memories from before an injury.
      • Anterograde amnesia: inability to form new memories after an injury
    • Korsakoff's syndrome: memory disorder related to thiamine deficiency, often caused by alcoholism
    • Dementia: a decline in cognitive function, including memory loss, affecting daily life and functioning.
    • Dyslexia: Learning disorder affecting reading ability, difficulties with connecting sounds to letters.
    • Dyscalculia: Learning disorder affecting mathematical abilities.
    • Retrieval: Recalling previously learned facts (e.g., multiplication tables).
    • Calculation: Solving problems step-by-step.
    • Consciousness: awareness of oneself and the environment, related to thoughts, feelings and perceptions.
    • Attention: focus on specific stimuli, top-down (intentional) and bottom-up (reacts to unexpected stimuli).

    Mental Illness

    • Mental illness: conditions that affect mood, thinking, and behavior, disrupting daily life.
    • Common myths associated with mental illness (e.g., those with mental illness are violent or weak).
    • Comorbidity: presence of two or more disorders or illnesses in one person.
    • Mood disorders like Major Depressive Disorder (MDD).
    • Bipolar Disorder: characterized by extreme mood swings, including periods of mania and depression.
      • Subtypes: Bipolar I and II, Cyclothymia
    • Schizophrenia: a severe mental disorder characterized by distorted thinking, perceptions, emotions, and behavior.

    Treatment Options

    • Antipsychotics: Drugs that reduce the symptoms of schizophrenia and other similar conditions, by altering neurotransmitter functioning. Several generations, with varying effects and side effects.

    Brain Asymmetry

    • The human brain is not symmetrical.
    • Each hemisphere has different specialized functions like Broca's and Wernicke's regions for language or other specific functions
    • Lateralization impacts specific brain functions.

    Split-Brain Patients

    • Patients who have had their corpus callosum severed.
    • This can result in unique behaviors and responses.
    • The two hemispheres of the brain are isolated.

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