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What is the advantage of using standardized questions in research?
A negative correlation coefficient indicates that variables have a direct relationship.
False
Define what a representative sample is.
A randomly selected sample of subjects from a larger population.
The correlation coefficient ranges from _____ to _____ for positive relationships.
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Match the following correlation coefficients with their meanings:
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What can be concluded from a correlation of r = 0?
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Researchers can make causal conclusions based on correlation.
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Explain the strength of a correlation.
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Which reflex is NOT one of the reflexes present early in life?
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Touch is the least developed sensory system at birth.
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At what age do most babies start to crawl?
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The _____ reflex helps babies find food by turning their heads towards a stimulus.
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Which sensory system is functional but not fully developed at birth?
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Match the following motor milestones with their approximate age:
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What term refers to the actual content of a dream?
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Assimilation involves the alteration of old schemas to include new information.
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The amygdala is primarily responsible for creating rational thoughts during dreaming.
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What is the term for a mental concept formed through experience with objects and events?
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What happens to the brain's rational thought regions during dreaming?
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The process that occurs when special receptors in the sense organs are activated is known as __________.
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Match the following brain regions with their associated functions during dreaming:
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What is the primary characteristic of top-down processing?
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Bottom-up processing relies on preconceived ideas to influence perception.
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What principle does Weber's Law illustrate regarding the detection of differences in stimuli?
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In top-down processing, perception is characterized as _________, _________, and _________.
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Match the following statements with the correct processing type:
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What is the independent variable (IV) in an experiment testing an antidepressant medication?
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The control group is exposed to the independent variable.
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What is a placebo effect?
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In a double-blind study, both the participants and ______ do not know which group they belong to.
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Match the following terms with their correct definitions:
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What does random assignment help to achieve in experimental designs?
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In psychological research, ethical guidelines are optional.
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What is the purpose of a control group in an experiment?
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Study Notes
Surveys
- Standardized questions are used to collect information from a large group of people representing a sample of the population of interest.
- Advantage: Large amounts of information can be gathered quickly.
- Limitation: Participants may not be truthful or remember information accurately.
- Potential for bias
- Representative sample: randomly selected sample of subjects from a larger population
Finding Relationships
- Correlation: a measure of the relationship between two variables.
- Variable: Anything that can change over time.
- Correlation coefficient: a number indicating the strength and direction of a correlation.
- Ranges from -1 to +1
- Positive coefficient: variables are related in the same direction.
- Direct correlation
- Ranges from 0 to 1
- Examples:
- More you eat, more you weigh.
- Less you study, poorer your grades.
- Negative coefficient: variables are related in opposite directions.
- Inverse correlation
- Ranges from -1 to 0
- Examples:
- More time spent online, less money you have.
- More you brush your teeth, fewer cavities you have.
- Strength of relationship: determined by how far the "r" value is from 0.
- When comparing correlations, focus on both positive and negative values to identify the stronger relationship.
Experiments
- The only way to determine the cause of a behavior.
- Example: Testing if antidepressant medication works or not.
Variables
- Anything that can change or vary.
- Operational definition: Definition of a variable that allows for its direct measurement.
- Example: "aggressive behavior."
- Independent variable (IV): the variable that is manipulated in an experiment.
- What is different between the groups
- Example: Receiving a placebo or actual medication.
- Dependent variable (DV): the variable that is the output.
- How you know if the manipulation worked or not.
- Example: Symptoms of depression.
- See if there are fewer symptoms with medication.
Groups
- Experimental group: exposed to the change represented by the independent variable.
- Control group: not exposed to the independent variable.
- Random assignment: participants are randomly assigned to experimental or control groups to ensure each participant has an equal chance of being in either group.
- Reduces the chance that results are due to pre-existing connections between the groups.
Problems and Remedies in Experimental Designs
- Placebo effect: Expectations and biases of participants affecting their behavior.
- Participants may believe they will experience a change even if they are in the control group.
- Example: If participants are told they are being treated for symptoms of depression, they might expect their symptoms to decrease, even if they are receiving a placebo.
- Experimenter effect:
- The experimenter's expectations for the study unintentionally influence the results.
- The experimenter may be biased in interpreting the dependent variable.
- Single-blind study: Participants do not know whether they are in the treatment or control group.
- Double-blind study: Neither participants nor examiners know whether participants are in the control or experimental group.
- The examiners evaluating the dependent variable should not know which group the participants belong to.
- Example: The nurses or research team administering the treatments know the group assignment, but the examiners evaluating the dependent variable do not.
Ethics Of Psychology Research
- Guidelines ensure ethical research practices.
Reflexes
- Present early in life and have survival value.
- Examples:
- Stepping
- Grasping
- Moro (startle)
- Sucking
- Rooting
- These reflexes are important for feeding, nutrition, and safety.
Sensory Development at Birth
- Touch, taste, and smell are well-developed at birth.
- Touch is most well-developed at birth (used in the womb), followed by taste and smell (demonstrated via experiments with mother's breast milk and stranger's breast milk).
- Hearing is functional, but not fully developed.
- Waxy coating in baby's ears protects them from liquids in the uterus.
- Vision is the least developed sense at birth.
- Rods are functional, while cones develop fully around six months of age.
- Babies are near-sighted, with a focal range of 6 inches to a foot
- Rods are responsible for black, white, and gray perception.
- Cones are responsible for color perception.
Motor Milestones (First 18 Months)
- 2 to 4 months: Raising head and chest.
- 6 to 7 months: Sitting up without support.
- 7 to 8 months: Crawling.
- 8 to 18 months: Walking.
Cognitive Development
- Development of thinking, problem-solving, and memory.
Piaget's Theory Of Cognitive Development
- Scheme: A mental concept formed through experience with objects and events.
- Children are not "little adults" and think differently.
- Example:
- Scheme for a chair: A mental representation of what a chair is.
- Scheme for friendship, faith, or democracy.
- Provides a framework for understanding.
- Assimilation: Incorporating new information into existing schemes.
- New information is added to an existing scheme, making it more complex or specific.
- Accommodation: Altering or adjusting old schemes to include new information.
Dreams
- Manifest content:
- The actual content of the dream, what you can remember when you wake up.
- Describes the dream you had.
- Latent content:
- The hidden meaning of the dream, linked to unconscious desires and thoughts.
- Brain Activity during Dreaming:
- Spikes in activity in areas of the brain related to:
- Visuospatial regions (occipital lobe)
- Motor cortex (frontal lobe)
- Hippocampus (memory)
- Amygdala/cingulate cortex (limbic system – emotion)
- Deactivation in areas responsible for rational thought (parts of the frontal lobe).
- This may explain why dreams are often illogical or wild.
- Spikes in activity in areas of the brain related to:
- Lucid dreaming:
- The individual becomes aware that they are dreaming.
- They gain control of the dream experience and can manipulate what happens.
What Do People Dream About?
- People dream about various things, often reflecting their daily experiences and emotions.
- Content can vary greatly from person to person.
- Some common themes include:
- Familiar people and places
- Everyday activities
- Fears and anxieties
- Unusual or bizarre situations
Sensation and Perception
- Sensation: When special receptors in sense organs are activated, transforming outside stimuli into neural signals in the brain.
- Sensory receptors: Specialized neurons that respond to different forms of energy, like light or sound vibrations, instead of neurotransmitters.
- Perception: How sensations are interpreted and organized into meaningful patterns.
Top-Down Processing
- Knowledge and expectations drive a process.
- Prior experience and expectations are used to recognize stimuli.
- Background knowledge influences perception.
- Slow, deliberate, effortful, and under your control.
- Goal-directed.
Bottom-Up Processing
- Stimulus influences our perception.
- Basic features of stimuli are sensed and then integrated.
- No preconceived idea of what is being looked at.
- Fast, automatic, and not under our conscious control.
Weber's Law of Just Notable Differences
- The smallest difference between two stimuli that can be detected 50% of the time.
- The proportion of change is important, not the actual units or absolute value.
- Higher intensity of stimulus requires a larger change to detect.
- Lower intensity of stimulus requires a smaller change to detect.
- Example:
- A friend is listening to music at a volume level of 50.
- Incrementally increase the volume and observe when the friend notices the change.
- At volume 50, going from 50 to 51, 51 to 52, etc., might not be noticeable. However, going from 50 to 60 might be easily detected.
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Description
This quiz explores key concepts from psychology, focusing on surveys and their use in research, as well as understanding relationships between variables through correlation. Learn about the advantages and limitations of surveys and how to interpret correlation coefficients. Test your knowledge on how these concepts apply in psychological research.
