Psychology Chapter: Sleep and Dreaming Studies

Opportunity sampling

The main group of participants spent between 6-17 nights in the study, while the smaller group spent only one or two nights.

The EEG monitors the electrical activity of the brain during sleep, which is used to identify different stages of sleep.

<p>One weakness is that there is low generalisability, as only 9 participants were used in the experiment. Another weakness is that there is low ecological validity, because the artificial setting of a sleep laboratory may not accurately reflect real-life sleep patterns.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The EOG measures the electrical activity of the eyes, specifically monitoring eye movements during sleep.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>One challenge is that the participant is necessarily asleep, making communication with the researcher impossible.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Researchers aimed to manipulate the stage of sleep (REM or NREM) at which the participants were woken. They wanted to study this because they hypothesized that dream recall would be higher for participants woken in the REM stage compared to those woken in the NREM stage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They used the participants' initials instead of their full names.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>One ethical consideration is that participant WD was misled about being woken up in either the REM or NREM stage. Another ethical consideration is that the participants were connected to electrodes, which could have been uncomfortable.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Independent variable: Stage of sleep (REM vs. NREM). Dependent variable: Dream recall. Controlled variable: The participants' prior sleep duration and sleep quality.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They were instructed to abstain from alcoholic or caffeine-containing beverages to minimize their impact on sleep patterns.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Dream content is subjective and may not be accurate or reliable.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To enhance generalisability, the study could be conducted with a larger participant sample, representing a wider range of ages, genders, and cultures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The dependent variable was the number of words in the dream narrative.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Eye movement patterns during REM sleep were related to the visual content of dreams. For example, primarily horizontal eye movements were associated with dreams involving watching people throwing tomatoes, while vertical eye movements were linked to dreams about climbing ladders.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A dream is defined as a participant's self-report after being awoken from REM sleep, where they say they were dreaming.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Dreaming is more likely to be reported at the end of the night, when the REM stages are longer.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The experimental design manipulated the independent variable of waking time after a specific duration of REM sleep (5 or 15 minutes) to observe its effect on dream reporting. The correlational design examined the relationship between two naturally occurring variables: time spent in REM sleep and the number of words in the dream narrative.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Eye movement patterns were a reliable indicator of dream content because they reflected the visual aspects of the participant's dream, suggesting a link between the physical and psychological states during REM sleep.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The most common type of eye movement associated with dreams was mixed movements, which involved a combination of vertical and horizontal movements.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A strength of the study is the high internal validity, achieved by clearly operationalizing the definition of a dream and minimizing demand characteristics.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The hypothesis was that a revised Eyes Test would be more sensitive in measuring social intelligence in adults and that the Eyes Test and Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) Test would show a significant negative correlation, indicating both tests can measure autistic trait severity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The revised Eyes Test incorporated four options, instead of two options, with an equal number of female and male eye pairs. A glossary of terms was also provided to all participants.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>There was no correlation between the Eyes Test score and IQ.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The negative correlation indicates that individuals scoring higher on the Eyes Test (better social intelligence) tended to score lower on the AQ Test (fewer autistic traits), and vice versa.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It implies that the original Eyes Test may not have been sensitive enough to accurately differentiate between individuals with varying degrees of autistic traits.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The high internal validity is due to the standardized procedure with images of the same size, equal female and male eye pairs, a glossary provided to all participants, and the changes made to the Eyes Test itself.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The result was not considered significant because it did not account for the differences in sample sizes between the two groups.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Potential limitations might include a small or biased sample size, confounding variables not controlled adequately, and the specific cultural context potentially influencing the results.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The study used different methods to assess children and rhesus monkeys, and the toys used were not standardized for gender, which could have biased the results.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The study could help raise awareness about the importance of gender-neutral socialization, potentially reducing the gender gap in early childhood.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The study provides evidence for both individual and situational influences, suggesting that both biology and societal factors play a role in shaping behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The study mentions a potential issue with participant attrition, as two males withdrew due to discomfort. This could potentially bias the results by reducing the sample size in a specific group.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The study suggests that both biological factors (nature) and social influences (nurture) contribute to sex differences in behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The participants were adults ranging in age from 25 to 55 years, with an equal number of males and females in both the experimental and control groups.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Participants were recruited from individuals enrolled in Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) courses at the University of Massachusetts, with both groups having similar eligibility criteria.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mindfulness was assessed using both MRI scans and questionnaires measuring five mindfulness scales.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The monkeys were presented with wheeled and plush toys for 25 minutes. Observers then analyzed video recordings to determine the frequency and duration of specific behaviors such as touching, sitting on, dragging, carrying, turning, and sniffing the toys.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Females did not show a preference for plush toys over wheeled toys.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They achieved a consensus between multiple observers, indicating high inter-observer reliability.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Primates share genetic similarities with humans, making them valuable models for understanding whether such differences are influenced by biological or social factors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It suggests that prenatal hormonal influences may contribute to toy preferences, particularly in cases where females experience increased male hormones during fetal development.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It refers to the tendency to associate certain toys with specific genders, for example, associating aggression with males and dolls with females.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It helps us to better understand the development of gender-related behaviors and to challenge stereotypes that may limit children's choices and opportunities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Electrical activity patterns measured in the brain during sleep.

The ability to remember dreams after waking.

The length of uninterrupted dream stages typically ranges from 3 to 50 minutes.

Findings may not apply to the general population due to small sample size.

Misleading participants about the nature of the study to avoid bias.

Basic Rest-Activity cycles that occur roughly every 90 minutes, influencing sleep stages.

A sleep stage characterized by rapid eye movement and vivid dreaming.

A research study that observed sleep stages and dream recall using the EEG.

A tool used to monitor electrical activity in the brain during sleep.

A technique that tracks electrical activity related to eye movements during sleep.

A sampling technique where participants are selected based on availability.

Participants are monitored in a controlled environment to study their sleep patterns.

A strong statistical relationship between two variables, often shown using r values.

Movements of the eyes during REM sleep associated with different dream content.

Research conducted in a real-world setting without manipulation by the researcher.

The factor that is manipulated to observe effects on the dependent variable.

The outcome measured to see the effect of the independent variable.

A statistical method used to evaluate the relationship between two variables.

The descriptive account of a dream as reported by a participant.

Variations in research methods impacting study outcomes.

Group receiving the treatment or intervention in a study.

Group not receiving the treatment, used for comparison.

Encouraging behaviors and roles without gender bias.

Debate on whether behavior is more influenced by biology or environment.

Discussion of biological vs. environmental factors in development.

Average age of participants in a study, calculated by summing ages and dividing by the number of participants.

Measurements to assess levels of mindfulness before and after interventions.

A bias of assigning traits based on gender, such as aggression to males.

Hormones exposure during gestation that shapes preferences in children.

Specific actions recorded during the play observations of toys.

Agreement level between different observers analyzing behaviour.

A behaviour where the subject interacts with a toy over time.

Females showed no preference for plush over wheeled toys during play.

Condition affecting females leading to higher male hormones and toy preferences.

Using primates as models to study human-like behaviours and preferences.

A psychological test measuring social intelligence through emotion recognition in faces.

Group 1 scored higher on AQ test than groups 3 and 4, indicating differences in autistic traits severity.

No correlation was found between Eyes Test scores and IQ, showing independence of these measures.

A negative correlation between Eyes Test and AQ signifies as one increases, the other decreases.

The revised test improved sensitivity in measuring social intelligence for adults.

The revised Eyes Test shows high internal validity due to improved controls like standardized images and equal gender representation.

The ability to perceive, interpret, and respond to social cues, measured by tests like the Eyes Test.

Maintaining consistency in testing conditions such as image sizes to ensure reliable results.