CAIE AS Level Psychology Notes PDF

ZNOTES.ORG UPDATED TO 2024-2026 SYLLABUS CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE FOUR PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES SYLLABUS Prepared for Nirwan Neupane for personal use only. CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY The EEG...

ZNOTES.ORG UPDATED TO 2024-2026 SYLLABUS CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE FOUR PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES SYLLABUS Prepared for Nirwan Neupane for personal use only. CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY The EEG detects and records tiny electrical charges associated with nerve and muscle activity. 1. Biological Approach In REM sleep, EEG is relatively low voltage/amplitude and high frequency. In nREM sleep, EEG has either high voltage/amplitude 1.1. Introduction and slow (low frequency) waves or frequent ‘sleep Main assumptions of the biological approach: spindles’, short-lived high voltage, high-frequency Behaviour, cognition and emotions can be explained in waves. terms of the working of the brain and the effect of Aims hormones, genetics and evolution. Overall aim: To investigate dreaming objectively by Similarities and differences between people can be looking for the relationship between eye movements understood regarding biological factors and their in sleep and the dreamer’s recall. interaction with other factors. Specific aims: To test whether dream recall differs between REM 1.2. Dement and Kleitman (Sleep and and nREM sleep. To investigate whether there is a positive Dreams) correlation between subjective estimates of dream duration and the length of REM period. Title: The Relation of Eye Movements During Sleep to To test whether eye movement patterns are Dream Activity: An Objective Method for the Study of related to dream content. (Whether these patterns Dreaming represent the visual experience of dream content Year: 1957 or whether they are simply random movements Psychology being investigated: arising from the activation of the CNS) Our body follows two types of sleep: REM (rapid eye movement) sleep and nREM (non-rapid eye Procedure movement) sleep. Research Method: Laboratory Experiment, nREM can be divided into 4 sleep stages. Observations, Self-reports and correlation In REM sleep, our eyes move rapidly under the lids. Experimental design: Repeated Measures Design REM sleep is known as paradoxical sleep. It resembles Three approaches were used to test the three specific wakefulness as our eyes move; we often experience aims. (scroll above to find the three aims) vivid (bizarre) thoughts in dreams, and our brains are Sample: seven adult males and two adult females. Five active. However, it is different from wakefulness as it of them were studied intensively, while the data is difficult to wake up; we are relatively insensitive to gathered from the other four were minimal to confirm stimuli and paralyzed. the results. Ultradian rhythms- Basic Rest-Activity cycles that Sampling technique: Opportunity sampling occur almost every 90 minutes and are responsible Participants studied in detail spent between 6-17 for the different stages of sleep we experience. nights with 50-77 awakenings. The four others spent Dreams- Vivid and generally visual sequences of only one or two nights with 4-10 awakenings. imagery that occur during sleep in the REM stage. Participants were identified by their initials to maintain Background confidentiality. Aserinsky and Kleitman’s (1955) study observed Participants reported to the lab a little before their periods of rapid, conjugate eye movements during usual bedtime. sleep and found a high incidence of dream recall in They were instructed to eat normally but to abstain awakening participants and a low incidence when from alcoholic or caffeine-containing beverages on awakened at other times. the day of the experiment. Sleep and dreaming are hard to investigate because Participants were fitted with electrodes on their scalps the participant is necessarily asleep, and so cannot and around their eyes. communicate with the researcher. Even when awake, Once they were in bed in a quiet, dark room, the wires only self-report data can be obtained about dream were gathered into a “ponytail” to allow freedom of content, which alone may be invalid as it is subjective. movement. The electroencephalograph (EEG) monitors the The EEG ran continuously to monitor the participant's electrical activity of the brain. sleep stages and to inform the researchers when they The electrooculogram (EOG) allowed the electrical should be woken up. recording of eye movement patterns, their presence Participants were woken by a doorbell that was loud or absence, and their size and direction (vertical or enough to rouse them from any sleep stage. horizontal). The doorbell rang at various times during the night, and the participants indicated whether they had been WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by Nirwan Neupane at Rato Bangala School on 09/08/24. CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY dreaming and described their dreams in a voice Yes, dream recall significantly differs. In 79.6% of the REM recorder. awakenings (152/191) participants could recall a dream, Analysis of dream narrative: This was only considered whereas in only 6.9% of nREM awakenings (11/160), a dream if a coherent, fairly detailed description of the participants could recall their dreams. content existed. Vague, fragmentary impressions Therefore, participants are likelier to describe dreams were not scored as dreams. when woken from REM than nREM frequently. METHOD DESIGN Results for Question 2: Is there a positive correlation between Participants were woken subjective dream duration estimate and the length of the either from REM or nREM Natural experiment in a REM period before waking? sleep, but were not told laboratory setting Participants had 88% accuracy in estimating they were which stage they were in. woken up after 5 minutes of dreaming. They confirmed whether Participants had 78% accuracy in estimating they were Aim they had a dream and if so, IV: REM or nREM sleep woken up after 15 minutes of dreaming. 1 reported the content into a stage The correlation between the two variables was positive, recorder. within the range of 0.4 to 0.71, as the r values showed a DV: whether the significant correlation. participants reported a dream, and if so, the Results for Question 3: Are eye movement patterns related to details dream content? Participants were woken The data was used in both Eye movements, as recorded on EEG, were related to following 5 or 15 minutes experimental and dreams' visual content. of REM sleep. correlational designs. With only vertical (climbing up a ladder and looking down) They were asked if they Experimental analysis: IV - or only horizontal (watching two people throwing thought they had been waking after 5 or 15 tomatoes at each other) eye movements were rare, with Aim dreaming for 5 or 15 minutes of REM sleep. DV - only 3 dreams and 1 dream, respectively. 2 minutes. participant’s choice 10 dreams were reported to have little to no eye Correlational analysis: two movement (watching something in the distance) Their dream narrative was variables were the 21 dreams had mixed movements (talking to a group of recorded, and the number participant’s time estimate people) of words was counted. and number of words in the Conclusions dream narrative Participants were woken Dreams are experienced in REM but not NREM sleep. after exhibiting a single Natural experiment in a Dreaming is more likely at night's end, as the REM stages eye-movement pattern for laboratory setting. are longer. longer than a minute. Strengths IV: eye-movement pattern Aim type (mainly horizontal, High internal validity - definition of dream clearly 3 This was measured using mainly vertical, vertical & operationalized, demand characteristics minimized by not electrodes and an EOG. horizontal, little or none) telling participants about their EEG patterns, laboratory This could not be experiment with limited effect of uncontrolled variables. manipulated. High reliability - EEG shows quantitative data and is not The dream content was DV: report of dream affected by the experimenter’s subjective view; recorded. content quantitative and qualitative data are collected. Weakness’s Results Low generalisability: only 9 participants may not General Results represent the dream frequency of the general population. Uninterrupted dream stages lasted for a range of 3 to 50 Low ecological validity: People used to caffeinated drinks minutes with an estimate average of 20 minutes. could experience changes in sleep and dream patterns Dream Stages are usually longer later in the night. due to lack of those drinks; sleeping in a laboratory Dream stages had irregular bursts of 2-100 rapid eye connected to electrodes could be uncomfortable. movements. Ethics Results for Question 1: Does dream recall differ in REM and nREM stages of sleep? WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by Nirwan Neupane at Rato Bangala School on 09/08/24. CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY Deception: Participant WD was misled about whether he Female and male primates have differences in hormones, was woken in the NREM or REM stage. just like humans. Issues and Debates Aims Application: EEG, which is used to detect dreaming, has To investigate whether toy preference in monkeys is useful applications for assessing people with sleep and similar to those in children to test for a biological dream issues (for example- insomnia and nightmares) explanation for sex differences in toy choice. The EEG can be used to monitor the different stages of Procedure sleep individuals with insomnia (trouble falling asleep or Research method: A field experiment not sleeping enough) face and see patterns in their dream Experimental design: Independent Measures Design stages (example- shorted REM sleep stages)- this helps Independent Variable (IV): Gender, Monkey’s rank on get a better understanding of the problem they are facing social hierarchy and according come up with a solution. Dependent Variable (DV): Frequency and duration of Parasomnias is a sleeping disorder involving unusual play with each toy type behavior and dreams. EEG monitoring can be used to Sample: 21 males and 61 female rhesus monkeys observe REM sleep stages for this disorder as well to living in natal groups at the Yerkes primate research understand how the unusaul dreams are related to sleep station in the USA. stages and dream sleep. Sampling technique: Opportunity sampling Nature versus Nurture: Mainly focuses on nature, making The natal group was housed in a 25*25-meter outdoor obtaining evidence through EEG possible. area with admission into a temperature-controlled indoor area. 1.3. Hassett et al. (Monkey Toy Preferences) Procedure toys were divided into two categories based on their Title: Sex differences in rhesus monkey toy preferences properties: 'wheeled toys', which matched with toys parallel those of children typically for boys, and 'plush toys' to match girl toys. Year: 2008 Six-wheeled toys- wagon, truck, car, shopping cart Psychology being investigated: Seven Plush toys- teddy bear, Koala hand puppet There is a difference in male and female brain For every group formed from the natal group, 7 trials structure and hormones,, resulting in sex differences. occurred, all lasting for 25 minutes. Socialization is the method of learning behaviours that The rhesus monkeys were observed using two video are socially accepted. These behaviours differ for the cameras. two genders. For each of the 7 trials, all monkeys were initially indoors It has been difficult to determine if differences in while one plush toy and one wheeled toy were placed 10 behaviour between females and males are more due metres apart in the outdoor area. to biological factors or social differences due to Each video camera was focused on one of the toys, with socialization. the positions of wheeled and plush toys being Gender stereotype- bias of assigning particular traits counterbalanced between right and left locations. to a particular gender, for example- assigning After the 25-minute trial, the toys were removed, and two aggression as a male-typed trait. observers analyzed the videotape to achieve a consensus Play- Childhood behaviours are usually done for fun, that resulted in high inter-observer reliability. which may or may not involve social interaction and Specific behavioural categories were formed after objects called ‘toys’. watching the animal interact with toys. The exact time of each activity was also recorded, along Background with the frequency of each behaviour. A few behavioural categories include extended touch, Infants are exposed to hormones during the prenatal sitting on the toy, dragging, carrying in hand, turning the stages of gestation, which impacts top preferences in children. entire toy, and sniffing. For data analysis, each monkey's behaviour was A few females have experienced a genetic condition which increases male hormones during foetal converted into an average frequency and duration. development- these girls are seen to prefer more ‘male’ '- type toys in comparison to other girls. Results Primates are similar to humans genetically and, Females did not have a preference for plush toys over therefore, can be used as a model to show if gender wheeled toys. differences in behaviour are due to biological or social Females interacted with plush toys more than males did. factors. WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by Nirwan Neupane at Rato Bangala School on 09/08/24. CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY Male monkeys prefer 'masculine' wheeled toys for needed due to potential pre-existing individual 'feminine' plush toys. differences that could affect results. Rank on social hierarchy was positively correlated to the Aims: total frequency of interactions. Use the MBSR course to compare grey matter When compared to data from Berenbaum and Hines concentration in specific brain areas and the whole (1992), it was seen that rhesus monkeys and children both brain before and after the course (pre and post- showed higher preference marks in males than females. stages) Strengths *MBSR- Meditation-Based Stress Reduction High internal validity: use of animals to eliminate the Procedure: effect of socialization and another confounding Research Method: Laboratory Experient with variable, behavioural categories were accurately longitudinal design defined, counterbalancing of wheeled toy and plush Experimental Design: Independent Measures Design toy position. Independent Variable: Exposure to an eight-week High standardisation: The observation process was mindfulness-based intervention, the MBSR course the same for all monkeys, with a standard length of Dependent Variable: Change in the grey matter 25-minute sessions. assessed using MRI scans and Response on Weaknesses questionnaires to measure five mindfulness scales Methodological differences: Differences in the (before and after intervention) children and rhesus monkeys were compared; the Sample: toys offered were chosen for object properties rather Experimental Group than female or male-typed toys, and children were 16 participants- 6 Males and 10 Females assessed using different toys and only measuring the Mean age- 38 years duration of play, not frequency. There were 18 participants in the experimental group, Issues and Debates but 2 males withdrew due to discomfort. Application: Help cause awareness regarding gender- Control Group neutral socialization. This would minimize the divide 17 participants- 7 Males and 10 Females between males and females early in childhood. Mean age- 39 years Individual versus Situational: illustrates a role of The control group participants had the same eligibility biology that supports the individual side of the debate; criteria as the experimental group for admission into however, exposure to gender stereotyping in society the mindfulness course. counts for a situational explanation. Common points for both groups: Nature versus Nurture: sex differences due to Participants for this study were recruited from biological aspects of brain structure and hormones individuals already enrolled in 4 MBSR courses at the count for nature, but socialization in society is mainly University of Massachusetts due to nurture. Overall Age Range- 25 to 55 years All participants were physically and psychologically 1.4. Hölzel et al. (Mindfulness and Brain healthy All participants were not on any medication Scans) All participants had limited experience with meditation classes Title: Mindfulness practice to increase regional brain grey They all had the same educational level matter density Incentive of discounted MBRS course fee was given to Year: 2011 all Psychology being investigated: Sampling technique: Opportunity Sampling Mindfulness- State achieved through meditation that aims Both groups completed the FFMQ (Five Facet to increase awareness of the present-moment Mindfulness Questionnaire) with 39 questions and five experience. subscales. Localization of function- Particular brain areas are The 5 subscales had statements that measured responsible for different activities. observing, describing, acting with awareness, non- Background: judging of inner experience, and non-reactivity to Mindfulness involves cognitive processes and sensory inner experience. experiences that impact brain function. Each statement had to be answered on a five-point Early studies used EEG, but now MRI provides more Likert-type scale, and the scores were added. detailed information by measuring brain structures Some questions were reverse scored, and from each and changes in grey and white matter. group, 14 participants gave usable data at both time Comparative studies suggest differences in brain grey points. matter between individuals practising mindfulness MRI brain scans of both group participants were taken meditation and those who don’t. However, caution is at two-time points. WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by Nirwan Neupane at Rato Bangala School on 09/08/24. CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY For the experimental group: two weeks before MBSR and variables such as mood, attentiveness, and health, two weeks after MBRS course (average gap of 56 days) among others, that could influence mindfulness. For the control group: The two scans were taken with an High amounts of standardisation: for instance, a fixed average gap of 66 days between them. number of exercises to be performed and fixed total The data from MRI scans was utilized in two ways: duration- make the study highly replicable, raising 1. To analyze the regions of interest- Hippocampus reliability. and Bilateral insulae 2. To analyze the whole brain to explore other areas Weaknesses: affected by the mindfulness course. Lack of generalisability of the sample as they were all Lastly, participants reported the time they spent over 8 similar due to already being enrolled in MBSR courses weeks’ time on formal homework and the three assigned and having the same level of education. exercises (Body scans, yoga and sitting meditation) The unknowns regarding the accuracy of the MRI and the lack of objectivity in the interpretations of the data Results produced decrease the internal validity. No significant correlation between time spent on body The lack of correlation between grey matter and time scans, yoga and sitting meditation spent on mindfulness exercise homework shows that Participants in the MBSR group significantly increased the exercises did not directly cause brain changes, mindfulness scores on the 3 subscales (acting with which also decreases internal validity. awareness, observing and non-judging) between pre Issues and Debates: and post-testing Application to everyday life: Provides a method to help Specific areas of interest: people with temporoparietal junction (TPJ) In the specific area of interest- Left Hippocampus impairment, and the two areas of the cerebellum there were positive changes in grey area where grey matter changes were observed can be concentration for the MBSR group between the pre used for emotion regulation and healthy psychological and post-stages functioning. In the specific area of interest- the Left Hippocampus, Nature versus Nurture: The biological aspects are there were no changes in a grey area concentration highly determined by the processes of nature. for the control group between pre and post-stages. However, the study showed that nurture through No correlation between grey matter in specific areas MBRS can affect those structures and processes. and the amount of homework or changes in FFMQ scores Whole-brain analysis: 2. Cognitive Approach Four clusters of the brain showed a significant increase in grey matter concentration for the MBSR 2.1. Introduction group between the pre and post-stages These four clusters showed a significant increase in Main assumptions of the cognitive approach: grey matter concentration for the control group behaviour and emotions can be explained in terms of relative to other brain area the role of cognitive processes such as attention, (The four clusters were Posterior cingulate cortex, left language, thinking and memory temporoparietal junction and two parts of the cerebellum) similarities and differences between people can be No correlation between other parts of the brain and understood in terms of individual patterns of cognition the amount of homework or changes in FFMQ scores Conclusions: 2.2. Andrade (Doodling) The concentration of grey matter increases in regions in the hippocampus, posterior cingulate cortex (PPC), Title: What Does Doodling Do? left temporoparietal junction (TJP) and cerebellum in Year: 2010 those who practice an 8-week mindfulness-based Psychology being investigated: stress reduction course (MBSR) People have been known to daydream frequently Ethical Issues: when presented with something boring. Risk of not protecting participants from harm by not Background assisting control group participants until at least eight Before this study, it was unknown whether doodling weeks impairs attention processes by removing resources Strengths: from the primary attention task or aids concentration The increased external validity of findings derived towards the primary task, additionally maintaining from longitudinal studies stems from the extended arousal. duration, which helps stabilize fluctuating participant It is common in research on attention to pose the participants with dual tasks to monitor performance WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by Nirwan Neupane at Rato Bangala School on 09/08/24. CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY and then see which cognitive processes are needed to Participants listened to the tape for 2.5 minutes and complete these tasks. wrote down the information as directed. Aim As soon as the recording finished, the researcher To test whether doodling aided information collected the sheets and talked to the participant for a processing when performing a tedious task. minute. Procedure This conversation included a debriefing and an Research Method: Laboratory Experiment apology for misleading them about the memory test. Experimental Design: Independent Groups The participants were asked if they suspected a IV: Doodling or Non-doodling (Control) Group memory test. DV: Mean correct recall, false alarms and memory Half the participants recalled the names of people, scores then places and the other half the places, then names. Sample: 40 members of the MRC Applied Psychology (Counterbalancing) Unit participant panel at the University of Plymouth Results (UK). They were aged 18-55 and paid for participating. Participants in the doodling group shaded a mean of Participants were assigned randomly to the control 36.3 shapes (range 3-110). One participant did not (20 - 18 females and 2 males) or doodling (20 - 17 doodle and was replaced females and 3 males) group. None of the participants in the control group doodled. Sampling Technique: Opportunity Sampling (they had 3 participants in the doodling group and 4 in the volunteered for a different study and were then control group suspected a memory test. However, recruited immediately after participating in that none of them claimed they actively tried to remember unrelated study) the information for the test. The researcher recorded a mock telephone message If a response indicated a plausible mishearing, it was using a cassette recorder. scored as correct. A somewhat monotonous voice was used. New names not similar to the ones given, names of It was 2.5 minutes long, with an average speaking rate people who could not attend, or responses such as of 227 words per minute “sister”, which are relational words, were scored as The recording was being played at a comfortable false alarms. volume for the participant to listen to. MONITORING PERFORMANCE SCORE = number of The script included the names of 8 people who would correct names - number of false alarms be attending a party alongside the names of 3 people 15 Participants in the doodling group and 9 and 1 cat who would not attend. 8 place names were Participants in the control group scored the maximum also mentioned. score. Participants were recruited after finishing an Monitoring performance was significantly higher in unrelated experiment for another researcher and the doodling condition (mean = 7.7; SD = 0.6) asked if they would mind spending another 5 minutes compared with the control condition (mean = 6.9; SD = helping with research. 1.3) The intention was to enhance the boredom of the task Each participant generated a name score and a place by testing people who were already thinking about score. The monitoring and recall phases had to be the going home. same if a plausible mishearing was presented. The participants were randomly assigned to the two Those in doodling condition recalled a mean of 7.5 conditions (doodling or control) pieces of correct information compared to the control Participants were tested individually in a quiet and group (5.8). visually dull room. Monitored names were recalled more than places. They were asked to note down the names of all people The recall was significantly better for those in doodling attending the party and nothing else. They were also condition told they did not need to remember anything. Memory scores were entered into a 2 (doodling, Participants in the control condition were given a piece control) and 2 (names, places) mixed measures of lined paper and a pencil. ANOVA, which confirmed that the monitored names Participants in the doodling group were given a piece were recalled better than the incidental places. of A4 paper with alternating rows of 10 squares and Removing data from participants who had suspected a circles, 1 cm in diameter, with a 4.5 cm margin on the test were removed from the analysis, there was still a left-hand side where they could write any target significant difference (p=0.01) information. Conclusions The doodling group was asked to shade the shapes Participants who performed a shape-shading task They were told that “it does not matter how neatly or concentrated better on a mock telephone message quickly you do this - it is just something to help relieve than those who listened with no concurrent task. the boredom.” It is unclear whether doodling led to better recall because doodlers noticed more of the target WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by Nirwan Neupane at Rato Bangala School on 09/08/24. CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY information (better attention) or whether it aided It appears that they have difficulty understanding memory recall by encouraging deeper processing of other people's beliefs, attitudes, and emotions. the message (better memory). Background Ethical Issues In 1997, the “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” test was Deception about the memory test developed to assess the theory of mind. This Debriefing appeared to discriminate between adults with Lack of protection from harm- were given an Asperger syndrome (AS) or high-functioning autistic unforeseen test on place names, which can cause (HFA) adults and control adults. distress if they cannot remember the places. The two former groups scored significantly worse. Strengths However, the researchers were not happy with Standardized procedure - easy to replicate for elements of the original study and wanted to reliability “upgrade” their measures to make it better. Many controls - more confident about the causal Aims relationship To test a group of adults with AS or HFA on the revised Weaknesses version of the eyes test. This was to check if the Low Generalisability: The sample was from a deficits in this group found in the original study could volunteer participant panel. Therefore, they may be be replicated. qualitatively different, and the results may not reflect To test if, in a sample of normal adults, an inverse the population. (negative) correlation would be found between Participant Variables might have affected the findings performance on the (revised) Eyes Test and the Low mundane realism Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Low ecological validity To test whether females scored better on the Eyes It lacks any measure of daydreaming. A replication Test than males. that included thought probes during the telephone Procedure message or retrospective self-report of daydreaming Research Method: Natural Experiment (as the IV is would test whether the effect of doodling on memory naturally occurring) and Questionnaire occurred via effects on daydreaming. Experimental Design: Independent Groups Future neuroimaging studies could test the hypothesis IV: Four groups of participants (naturally occurring) that doodling selectively reduces cortical activation DV: Score on Eyes Test and Autism Spectrum Quotient associated with daydreaming Sample: Group 1: 15 male adults with AS or HFA. Issues and Debates Recruited via adverts in the UK National Autistic Application: Useful for students while revising or in Society Magazine or equivalent support groups. They class and improves learning by simultaneously using spanned an equivalent range of socioeconomic visuospatial and auditory tasks, leading to better classes and educational levels, as seen in group 2. information processing. Group 2: 122 normal adults drawn from the adult Individual and Situational Explanation: This study community and educational classes in Exeter or from supports both. Individual - participants may have used public library users in Cambridge. They had a broad a similar strategy before or have a personality type range of occupations and educational levels. that requires stimulation when processing Group 3: 103 normal adult students (53 male; 50 information. female) studying for undergraduate degrees at Situational: the process of doodling could have caused Cambridge University (71 in sciences, 32 in other the improvement in recall. subjects). This group is not representative of the general population and can be considered to have a 2.3. Baron-Cohen et al. (Eyes Test) high IQ. Group 4: Randomly selected 14 adults from the Title: The “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” Test Revised general population who were matched for their IQ with Version: A Study with Normal Adults and Adults with group 1. Asperger Syndrome or High-functioning Autism Initially, the first two authors of this study chose the Year: 2001 “correct” word and the “foil”. Psychology being investigated: They were then piloted on 8 judges (4 m 4 f) The main idea of the eye test was to investigate the For the correct word and its foil to be used, 5 out of 8 theory of mind. had to agree with the choice. This is the ability to attribute mental states to oneself No more than 2 judges should pick the foil or another person, which is how we make sense of or Participants tested individually in a quiet room in predict another person’s behaviour. Cambridge or Exeter. The notion is that many autistic individuals do not Participants in the AS/HFA group were asked to judge understand that other people have their plans, the gender of each eye pair additionally. thoughts, and points of view. WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by Nirwan Neupane at Rato Bangala School on 09/08/24. CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY Groups 1, 3 and 4 completed a questionnaire to Topic Original problems New design elements measure their AQ. In this version, only Participants were asked to read through the glossary complex mental and ask if they were unsure of any word. They were states were used to also reassured that they could refer to the glossary There were both make the task much anytime. basic and complex more challenging, Sampling Technique: Opportunity and Volunteer mental states, and so and in this way, Sampling contained some Mental state increasing the items that were easy likelihood of Topic Original problems New design elements and which therefore obtaining a greater Forced choice risked producing range of between two ceiling effects. performance in a responses meant Forced choice random sample of that only a narrow adults. remained, but four range of 17-25 response options Some pairs of eyes correct responses remained. could be solved They were excluded out of 25 would be Ease of solving easily by looking at in the revised statistically above the gaze direction of version. chance. the face. This meant that the Choice More female eye An equal number was range of scores for There were 36 pairs pairs than males. used. which the test could of eyes used, giving a reveal individual range of 13-36 This allowed a control Gender differences is only 9, correct responses. condition - judging which is too narrow. the gender from the eyes. This meant that individual differences Increased the level of Target word and foil could be examined difficulty by ensuring were always better in terms of Ease of that the foil words semantic opposite statistics. guessing had the same making it too easy to emotional valance as When the first guess. the target word. version was given to parents of children There may have A glossary with all with AS, they scored been comprehension terms was included, Ease of below the general problems that might which was available comprehension population. However, have contributed to for the P’s to use at they scored at a an individual’s score. all times. similar level with the AS or HFA adults Results even though they did Group 1 performed significantly worse on eyes test not have the than the other groups. Example Females scored higher than males on the eyes test, condition. This highlights that although this result wasn’t very significant. the test has a too Group 1 scored higher on AQ test than group 3 and 4 narrow range of participants. scores to distinguish No correlation between Eyes Test score and IQ between someone Negative correlation between Eyes Test and AQ Conclusion with the “lesser Revised eyes test was successful in being a more variant” or the sensitive test for social intelligence of adults. AQ test “broader phenotype” and Eyes Test showed a significant negative and someone with correlation as hypothesized showing that both can be the condition itself. used as tests for severity of autistic traits. Strengths High internal validity due to changes made to the Eyes test- 4 options, equal female and male eye pairs shown, glossary provided to all participants. WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by Nirwan Neupane at Rato Bangala School on 09/08/24. CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY Standardized procedure- images all of same size, 1. Children will be as good as adults at identifying black and white, 4 options with three foils cartoon faces in a target present line-up Weakness 2. Children will be worse than adults in rejecting cartoon Low ecological validity: in real life setting, eyes are not faces in a target-absent line-up static and body language hints can help guess the 3. Children will be worse than adults in identifying human emotional state of people. faces in a target present line-up Low generalizability- only 15 males used in ASD group 4. Children will be worse than adults at rejecting human so not generalizable to females with ASD. In student faces in a target-absent line-up comparison group, all students were from a highly Procedure selective university (Cambridge university) which is Research Method: Laboratory Experiment not representative of intellect of all regular students. Experimental Design: Independent measures (children Ethics: if they were not able to guess the emotions, it versus adults), Repeated measures (target present might cause distress or embarrassment leading to low versus target-absent and cartoon versus human) self-esteem and psychological harm. IV: Age (children versus adults), Line-up type (target Issues and Debates present versus target absent), Familiarity of target Application: Plan support lessons or therapy for (cartoon versus human) students or people with AS/HFA DV: Whether the correct face was selected in the Reductionist: doesn’t take into account the full picture target-present lineup, whether an empty silhouette of understanding emotions was chosen in the target-absent lineup. Sample: 2.4. Pozzulo et al. (Line-Ups) Children group- 59 children (21 females and 38 males) between the ages of 4-7 recruited from pre- Title: The Culprit in target-absent Lineups: Understanding kindergarten and kindergarten classes of three Young Children’s False Positive Responding private schools in Eastern Ontario, Canada. Mean age Year: 2011 of 4.98 years Psychology being investigated: Adult group- 53 adult participants (36 females and 17 Memories can be distorted by other information males) between the ages of 17-30 were recruited known as ‘Post-event information’ that we are exposed from the Introductory Psychology Participant Pool at to during and after the encoding stage of information Eastern Ontario University. Mean age of 20.54 years processing. Sampling Technique: Opportunity Sampling Post-event information can produce ‘False Memories’, 4 Video Clips, one photo-array per clip pieces considered accurate but result from additional HUMAN: 2 Video Clips, 6 secs each untrue details. 1. Man, putting on a coat How reliable are children at giving eyewitness 2. Woman brushing hair Two human 'targets' testimony as required by the law? were photographed wearing different clothes. False positive response- Giving an Four foils are made per target, similar in hair, affirmative(positive) but incorrect answer to a facial features and colour. Photographs are question. cropped until the neck. Background CARTOON: 2 Video Clips, 6 secs each Loftus and Palmer 1974 used a classical experiment to 3. Dora interacting with the audience. prove that words used in a question (post-event 4. Go! Diego! Go! Putting on safety gloves Two information) can impact participants’ speed estimates cartoon 'targets' and four foils were picked per of a vehicle seen in a video. target from the internet, similar in hair, facial Pozzolu and Lindsay in 1997 concluded that children features and colour. Photographs are cropped are less likely to say until the neck. Positions of targets were ‘I don’t know’ even though they know they were randomized, and all photos were black and allowed to. white. In all four lineups, the position of the Child witnesses were more likely to make incorrect target or its matching foil was decisions when shown a lineup due to perceived counterbalanced. Videos and photo arrays forced choice, perception of authority figures, and were presented on a 13-inch laptop screen. pressure to make a choice. Each child and adult was tested individually and shown Aims the first video Investigate whether social factors affect child Instructed to pay attention because they would be witnesses more than adult witnesses. asked some questions and offered some pictures To explore the impact of social versus cognitive after watching the video factors in children’s performance as child witnesses Following each of the four videos, all participants were Hypothesis asked their first free recall filler question, ‘What did the cartoon character/person look like?’ WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by Nirwan Neupane at Rato Bangala School on 09/08/24. CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY For adult participants: The second question asked was, Individual versus situational: This study supports a ‘Do you remember anything about the cartoon situational explanation due to the impact of social character/person? factors like authority. For child participants: The second question asked was Children as participants: Practical changes were made a non-specific probing question: ‘Do you remember to the procedure to ensure children could easily anything else?’ access tasks. Consent was gained in a child-friendly If children did not respond to the first free recall way. question, they were asked, ‘Do you remember anything from the video?’ and the researchers recorded replies. 3. Learning Approach After each filler task, child participants were told to look at a photo array, point to the cartoon/person 3.1. Introduction photo if they see it, and point to the black silhouette box if the cartoon/person is not there. Main assumptions of the learning approach: Similar instructions were given for adults, but they conditioning helps to explain changes in behaviour indicated their responses on a matching sheet. social learning helps to explain changes in behaviour. This procedure was repeated for all four videos. Results Responses to cartoons were generally more accurate 3.2. Bandura et al. (Aggression) than responses to human targets. Title: Transmission of Aggression Through Imitation of Children have similar accuracy as adults in identifying Aggressive Models. cartoon faces Year: 1961 Children are significantly less accurate than adults Psychology being investigated: when rejecting cartoon faces. Social Learning Theory: social behaviour is learned Children are significantly less accurate than adults primarily by observing and imitating others. It is when identifying human faces. “learning by proxy”. The Four components to it are: Children are significantly less accurate than adults Attention: Observers must pay attention to the when rejecting human faces. behaviour of the model. The model must have some Conclusions feature that attracts the observer. Any errors in the target-absent lineup for cartoons Retention: Observers must store the behaviour in their result from social factors, not cognitive factors. long-term memory so that the information can be For children, social factors play a more significant part used again (when the observer wants to imitate the in decision-making in target-absent line-ups than in behaviour). target-present ones. Reproduction: Observers must feel capable of Ethical Issues imitating the retained, observed behaviour. Deception regarding aim Motivation: Observers who experience vicarious Otherwise, it was a very ethical study as informed reinforcement are more likely to imitate the consent was taken, children had the right to withdraw, behaviour. This is when the model has been rewarded no psychological or physical harm was caused, and for performing the observed behaviour. Vicarious confidentiality was maintained. punishment can also happen: the role model is Strengths punished for the observed behaviour, so is less likely High standardization along with controls to imitate it. Use of objective quantitative data enabling the use of Background statistical analysis Learning behaviour by imitating others is called High internal validity due to minimal information given observational learning. to participants regarding aim- lower demand Several studies have demonstrated that children are characteristics influenced by witnessing adult behaviour in the same Weaknesses situation and in the presence of the adult who Low ecological validity and mundane realism because modelled the behaviour. the line-up was not accurate and lacked the emotional This study is concerned with learning gender-specific experience of a genuine police line-up behaviours. Order effects are due to repeated measures of seeing Aims all four videos and answering the same questions. Overall aim: To investigate observational learning of This can lead to demand characteristics. aggression. Issues and Debates Specific aims: Application to everyday life: Improve reliability of child To see whether children would reproduce aggressive witness information behaviour when the model was absent. WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by Nirwan Neupane at Rato Bangala School on 09/08/24. CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY To look for gender differences in the learning of materials provided for the model to play with and then aggression. left. Procedure In the non-aggressive condition, the model assembled Research Method: Laboratory experiment and the tinker toys quietly, subduedly, ignoring the Bobo Observations doll. Experimental Design: Independent groups, Matched In the aggressive condition, the model began pairs design assembling the tinker toys, but after a minute, he IV: (1) behaviour of the model – aggressive or non- turned to the Bobo and played with it. aggressive (2) sex of the model (3) sex of the child The model punched the Bobo, sat on it and punched it DV: amount of behaviour observed in 8 categories repeatedly, hit it with a mallet on the head and Sample: 72 participants: 36 boys and 36 girls from aggressively kicked it about in the room. Stanford University Nursery School. Their ages ranged The model also included verbal aggression such as, from 37 months to 69 months, with a mean age of 52 “sock him in the nose,” “Pow,” “throw him in the air”, months. 2 adults, a male and a female, served as the and two non-aggressive comments: “he keeps coming role models in the experiment. One female back for more” and “he sure is a tough fella”. experimenter conducted the study for all 72 This lasted for about 10 minutes. participants. Aggression Arousal Sampling Technique: Opportunity Sampling This was included for two reasons: (1) observation of Participants were divided into eight experimental aggressive behaviour exhibited by others tends to groups, six children each, and one control group of 24 reduce the probability of aggression on the part of the participants who watched no model. observer and (2) to instigate or annoy the children. Children in each condition were matched for their The participants were taken to a different room with levels of physical aggression, verbal aggression, some very attractive toys. aggression towards inanimate objects and aggressive The attractive toys included a fire engine, a inhibition. locomotive, a jet fighter plane, a cable car, a colourful The experimenter and a nursery teacher rated fifty- spinning top, a doll set complete with a wardrobe, a one participants independently on a four-five-point doll carriage, and a baby crib. scale. A very good agreement of 0.89 was achieved.; They were allowed to play with them for 2 minutes before the experimenter stopped them and said that Experimental Sex of Sex of Type of they were reserved for other children. Groups Child Model Behaviour Testing for Delayed Imitation 1 Male Male AGGRESSIVE Children were taken into the experimental room, 2 Female Female AGGRESSIVE which contained a variety of toys, including aggressive and non-aggressive toys. 3 Male Female AGGRESSIVE The aggressive toys were a 3-foot tall inflatable Bobo 4 Female Male AGGRESSIVE doll, a mallet and peg board, two dart guns and a NON- tether ball with a face painted on it, which hung from 5 Male Male AGGRESSIVE the ceiling. NON- The non-aggressive toys included a tea set, crayons 6 Female Female AGGRESSIVE and colouring paper, a ball, two dolls, three bears, NON- cars, trucks, and plastic farm animals. 7 Male Female The toys were placed fixedly. AGGRESSIVE Children were observed playing for the next 20 NON- 8 Female Male minutes. AGGRESSIVE Two more observers (the models) watched the child play and had an inter-rater reliability of 0.90 Modelling the Behaviour Three types of aggression were recorded: (1) imitative Each child was brought individually to a playroom by aggression (physical and verbal), (2) non-imitative the experimenter. She then invited the model, who aggression, and (3) partially imitative aggression. was outside the room. The experimenter took the child to one corner of the Results room, which was their play area. She demonstrated There was a significant difference in levels of imitative how the child could design a picture with potato prints aggression between the group that witnessed and the stickers provided. aggressive behaviour and the other two groups. The experimenter then escorted the model to the There was a significant difference in levels of imitative room's opposite corner, which contained a small table physical and verbal aggression. and chair, a tinker toy set, a mallet and a 5-foot Significantly more non-aggressive play was recorded inflated Bobo doll. She explained that these were the in the non-aggressive model condition. WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by Nirwan Neupane at Rato Bangala School on 09/08/24. CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY Children who had witnessed an aggressive model Primary Positive reinforcers- a reward that fulfils basic were significantly more aggressive themselves. needs, food, and shelter. Overall, very little difference was present between Secondary Positive Reinforcement (SPR) training aggression in the control group and the non- involves using reinforcers like sound markers and aggressive modelling condition. primary positive reinforcers like food. Boys were significantly more likely to imitate male- Shaping- Giving rewards only for movements or aggressive models. behaviors closest to the desired behavior. Boys were significantly more physically aggressive Behavior chaining- When different behaviors learned than girls. Girls were slightly more verbally are chained together in a sequence and performed. aggressive. Background Conclusions Mahouts' traditional method of training elephants Witnessing aggression in a model can be enough to relies on punishment, which uses pain or fear to shape produce aggression by an observer. behaviour. Children selectively imitate gender-specific Therefore, in 2011, the Nepalese government behaviours. introduced annual Tuberculosis testing of captive Ethical Issues elephants to reduce transmission, and researchers Children were exposed to aggressive behaviour and were encouraged to develop new training methods were not protected. based on positive reinforcement (like the one used by Informed consent was taken from the nursery teacher. Fagen et al.) Strengths Particularly, research by Desmond and Laule, 1991 The study has high levels of standardisation and, showed that positive reinforcement methods have hence, a higher reliability. been shown to improve the psychological well-being of The study has many controls, and this increases its elephants. validity. SPR has been used successfully with several animal There was a high inter-observer/ inter-rater reliability. species, including pandas, primates and antelopes. Low risk of demand characteristics. Aim Using a matched pairs design reduced the effects of To investigate if free-contact traditionally trained the participant variable. elephants can participate in a trunk wash through training The use of quantitative data allows for easier using positive reinforcement. statistical analyses. Method Weaknesses Research method- Controlled Observation (Structured The study lacks ecological validity and mundane Observation) realism. Sample: 4 female juvenile elephants aged 5-7 and 1 Issues and Debates adult female elephant estimated to be around 50. Application to Everyday Life: can be helpful in Common characteristics of the sample: all docile, not advertising agencies. currently pregnant, their mahout was willing to Individual and Situational Explanation: This study participate, traditionally trained and no previous supports the situational side of the debate as the experience with SPR training. situation that the children found themselves in caused Behavioral checklist the imitated aggressive behaviour. Nature versus Nurture: this supports the nurture side Behavior Description of the debate as the environment they found Distal end of trunk onto trainers Trunk Here themselves in caused the imitated aggressive outstretched palm. behaviour. Trunk held upwards either in a loose curl or The use of children who are less susceptible to Trunk Up dorsal aspect of the tip of the trunk. demand characteristics could become more Bucket Trunk gently placed inside a bucket. aggressive after this study. Elephant gives strong, distinct exhale Blow through the trunk. 3.3. Fagen et al. (Elephant Learning) Elephant holds the trunk still with the trunk Steady held in the position previously requested. Title: Positive reinforcement training for a trunk wash in Nepal’s working elephants: demonstrating alternatives to Procedure traditional elephant training techniques Year: 2014 Elephants trained in the morning (7.30 to 10 am) and evening (4 to 7 pm) Psychology being investigated: Sessions were never more than two days apart. Operant conditioning- Learning through the consequences of our actions. Behavior that is To complete the trunk wash, elephants had to complete the 5 behaviors stated above. rewarded is more likely to be repeated. WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised for personal use only by Nirwan Neupane at Rato Bangala School on 09/08/24. CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY Elephants were trained using- Capturing, Luring, Shaping Number of sessions to pass average session time Elephant and Secondary Reinforcers trunk wash (minutes) Capturing- Encouraged to perform usual natural 1 25 10.29 behaviors using a reward. 2 30 12.42 Luring- Encouraging unusual behaviors through careful and strategic positioning of reward. 3 35 13.27 Shaping- Gradually, rewarding elephants only for 4 35 11.11 behaviors which are the most accurate and closest to the expected behavior. \ Secondary Reinforcers- Teaching elephants to associate Strengths the sound of a whistle (secondary reinforcer) with arrival of chopped banana (primary reinforcer/reward) Use of behavioral checklist with detailed exact descriptions Trainers introduced one syllabus verbal cues during the which increases reliability. training process to prompt the success of learning of all 5 Done is a naturalistic setting causing ecological validity to be behaviors. high. Cues had no definition in English or Nepali as researchers Weakness didn’t want the mahouts to think elephants understood Small sample size- nor generalizable human language (a common local myth). Measurement of elephant’s performance was subjective. Behavioral chaining used to get the elephants to learn all Ethics the 5 behaviors in order, following the verbal cue. Low physical or psychological harm Started by teaching 2 of the behaviors in order and Issues and Debate respectively giving the reward. overtime, more behaviors Application to everyday life- Improves captive animal were added to the chain to complete all 5 behaviors. welfare to improve health of elephants and reduce TB in Syringe introduced once all trunk wash behaviors are humans. Fagen’s technique can be easily replicated to learnt as an aversive stimulus that the elephants might teach behaviors through positive reinforcement. find unpleasant once all trunk wash behaviors are learnt. Individual versus Situational- the 5 elephants have The elephants were rewarded in step 1(Trunk here) until individual differences in the speed at which they learnt the they gradually were happy with the syringe touching their trunk wash. trunk., in a process called desensitization. counter conditioning used to teach elephants to associate the syringe with arrival to chopped banana. 3.4. Saavedra and Silverman (Button overtime, syringe went from aversive stimulus to Phobia) conditioned stimulus. Trainer then encouraged elephant to accept syringe being Title: Case Study: Disgust and a Specific Phobia of inside the trunk so that fluid droplets can be injected Buttons. inside. Year: 2002 the fluid was gradually injected from 1 to 15 ml till the Psychology being investigated: complete 60ml.