Psychology Chapter: Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning Concepts

Operant conditioning focuses on how consequences shape voluntary behavior.
Discriminative stimulus (SD): A stimulus that signals the availability of reinforcement.
Positive reinforcement: Presenting a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior.
Negative reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to increase a behavior.
Positive punishment: Presenting an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior.
Negative punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Immediate vs. delayed reinforcement: The time between a response and its consequence affects learning.
Primary vs. secondary reinforcement: Primary reinforcers are naturally reinforcing, while secondary reinforcers become reinforcing through association.
Generalized reinforcement: This is a secondary reinforcer associated with many primary reinforcers.
Intrinsic vs. extrinsic reinforcement: Intrinsic motivation arises from within, while extrinsic motivation comes from external rewards.
Contrived vs. natural reinforcement: Contrived means deliberately set up, while natural simply occurs in the environment.
Fixed ratio (FR), Variable ratio (VR), Fixed interval (FI), Variable interval (VI), Fixed duration (FD), Variable duration (VD): Different schedules of reinforcement based on the number of responses or time elapsed. Key is understanding the pattern of reinforcement delivery. (e.g., FR—reward after every 5 correct responses)
Differential reinforcement: Reinforcing specific behaviors while ignoring others.
- Differential reinforcement of high rates (DRH): Encourages frequent responding.
- Differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL): Encourages less frequent responding.
- Differential reinforcement of paced responding (DRP): Reinforces behavior at a specific rate.
- Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO): Reinforcing any behavior other than the one you want to decrease.
- Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI): Reinforcing a behavior that is physically impossible to perform at the same time as the unwanted behavior.
Fixed time (FT), Variable time (VT): Reinforcement based solely on the passage of time.

Motivational Theories and Concepts

Incentive motivation: The drive to obtain desired outcomes.
Premack principle of reinforcement: A more preferred activity can reinforce a less preferred one.
Response deprivation hypothesis: Restricting access to a behavior increases its reinforcing value.
Drive reduction theory: Behavior is motivated by a desire to reduce internal tension.
Bliss point: The optimal level of behavior for an individual given their preferences.
Extinction: The gradual weakening of a learned response when reinforcement is withheld.
Side effects of extinction: Temporary increases in the unwanted behavior as well as emotional responses (frustration, aggression) as the learning process transitions.
Factors of resistance to extinction: How quickly the behavior returns to original levels once reinforcement is removed. Includes factors like the initial strength of behavior, schedule of reinforcement used, and how motivation is impacted.
Positive/negative behavioral contrasts:
Factors of effective punishments: Consistency, immediacy, and appropriateness.

Behavioral Approaches to Self-Control

Avoidance behaviors: Actions taken to prevent an undesirable stimulus.
Escape behaviors: Actions taken to terminate an undesirable stimulus.
Matching law: The tendency for response allocation to match reinforcement allocation.
Undermatching, Changeover delays, Overmatching: Deviation from perfect matching patterns, revealing specific behavior and reinforcement contexts.
Bias: Systematic deviations in matching behaviour.
Self-control and rule-governed behavior: The ability to regulate one's own actions based on internal rules.
Physical restraint: Preventing undesired behaviors through physical intervention.
Commitment response: Action taken in advance to increase the likelihood of performing a desired behavior.
Methods of self-control: Self-monitoring, goal setting, self-reinforcement, social support.
Ainslie-Rachlin graphs and concepts: Graphical representation of temporal discounting in self-control (a tendency to prefer immediate rewards over delayed rewards). Addresses how humans value immediate versus delayed rewards.
Rule-governed behavior: Learning based on verbal instructions.
Personal rules: Internal guidelines for behavior.

Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA)

Applied behavioral analysis: A scientific approach to changing behavior using principles of learning.
Goals of ABA: To improve social and behavioral skills in clients and to aid in the teaching process for clients in applied settings.
Functional assessment: Determining the functions of problem behaviors (why the client engages in these behaviors).
Functional analysis: Systematic evaluation to identify what environmental circumstances maintain problem behaviors.
Alone session, Attention session, Demand session, Tangible session, Toy play session: Different conditions presented to understand the function of behaviors through observations and measurements.
Functional analysis graphs and concepts: Visually presenting the data from the Functional Analysis to see the patterns (cause and effect) behind behaviors and improve treatment planning.