Psychology Chapter on Stress and Coping

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Questions and Answers

What does the Sense of Coherence (SOC) encompass regarding stress management?

Manageability, Meaningfulness, and Control (correct)

Motivation, Expression, and Reaction

Emotion, Recovery, and Adaptability

Control, Predictability, and Novelty

Which factors contribute to the perception of stress according to the STUN model?

Control, Novelty, Stress Levels, and Time

Substance Use, Personal History, Environmental Influence, and Stress Response

Predictability, Emotional Regulation, Control, and Context

Ego Threat, Social Evaluation, Predictability, and Novelty (correct)

Which type of stressor is characterized as being a result of perceptions rather than physical attributes?

Internal Stressor (correct)

Chronic Stressor

Relative Stressor

Physical Stressor

What does the term 'unpredictability' in the STUN model refer to?

Not knowing what to expect or how long the situation will last Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic of a stressor significantly increases stress according to the STUN model?

Novelty Signup and view all the answers

What role do psychological factors play in the experience of stress according to John W. Mason's research?

They dictate the stress response based on individual differences. Signup and view all the answers

How are stressors categorized based on their duration?

Acute and Chronic Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes a 'threat to ego' in the context of stress?

The fear of negative evaluation or self-judgment Signup and view all the answers

What does the Salutogenic Model of Stress primarily focus on?

The origins of health and well-being Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a major theory of stress?

Cognitive Dissonance Theory Signup and view all the answers

Which term refers to the maintenance of steady states in the body?

Homeostasis Signup and view all the answers

What does the 'Tend-and-Befriend' theory propose?

Social connections are a primary response to stress Signup and view all the answers

What kind of response is the Fight-or-Flight response considered to be?

Automatic and unconscious Signup and view all the answers

Which component is included in the Stress System Theory?

Biological responses to stress Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of the Allostasis concept in relation to stress?

The body's adaptive changes based on environmental conditions Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'stressors' refer to?

Factors that trigger stress responses Signup and view all the answers

What does Allostatic Load primarily measure?

Chronic stress effects on biological systems Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes allostatic load?

The cumulative wear and tear on the body due to prolonged stress Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a component of the Allostatic Load Index?

Cognitive function Signup and view all the answers

According to the transactional model of stress, how are hassles best understood?

As interactions between individuals and their perceptions of stressors Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best reflects Hans Selye's perspective on stress?

Every stress leaves an indelible scar on the organism. Signup and view all the answers

Which term refers to the interaction of various biological systems due to stress exposure?

Allostatic load Signup and view all the answers

What is commonly understood by the Salutogenic Model of health?

A focus on the origins of health and well-being Signup and view all the answers

What elements does the Sense of Coherence primarily consist of?

Predictability, control, and meaning Signup and view all the answers

What is primarily activated in the fight-or-flight response?

Striated muscles Signup and view all the answers

Which system is responsible for providing signals from the periphery to the brain?

Afferent pathways Signup and view all the answers

What effect can excessive stress have on the muscular system?

Muscle pain and tension Signup and view all the answers

Which branch of the autonomic nervous system is associated with rest-and-digest responses?

Parasympathetic nervous system Signup and view all the answers

What does the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system primarily activate?

Fight-or-flight responses Signup and view all the answers

What are the two key stress-sensitive systems in the nervous system?

Autonomic nervous system and endocrine system Signup and view all the answers

How does the immune system generally respond during acute stress?

It enhances immune response. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of stress and immune function, what differentiates Th1 responses from Th2 responses?

Th1 promotes cell-mediated immunity, while Th2 promotes humoral immunity. Signup and view all the answers

What is a common effect of chronic stress on the immune system?

Increased susceptibility to illness. Signup and view all the answers

What is one potential impact of caregiver stress on an individual?

Increased levels of anxiety and depression. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the role of the hypothalamus in stress response?

Controls the autonomic nervous system and endocrine system. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of movement control is primarily influenced by the basal ganglia?

Unconscious motor patterns and learned skills. Signup and view all the answers

Which area of the brain is primarily involved in emotional processing related to stress?

Amygdala Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the adrenal medulla during the stress response?

Releases adrenaline and noradrenaline Signup and view all the answers

How does chronic stress affect the immune system?

It can lead to immune suppression Signup and view all the answers

Which immune response is typically associated with managing viral infections?

Th1 response Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant impact of caregiving stress on the immune system?

Increased susceptibility to infections Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following hormones is primarily involved in the HPA axis stress response?

Cortisol Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference in timing between the SAM Axis and the HPA Axis during stress response?

SAM is fast-acting, while HPA is slow-acting Signup and view all the answers

Which physiological event is primarily caused by norepinephrine release during a stress response?

Dilation of bronchial tubes Signup and view all the answers

What effect does chronic activation of the stress response have on metabolism?

Increased metabolic rate Signup and view all the answers

In what way does the Th2 immune response differ from the Th1 response?

Th2 response is involved in allergic reactions Signup and view all the answers

What role do glucocorticoids play in the stress response?

Regulate inflammatory responses Signup and view all the answers

During a stress response, what does the sympathetic nervous system primarily activate?

Fight or flight response Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone released during the HPA axis is crucial for increasing blood glucose levels?

Cortisol Signup and view all the answers

What physiological effect does stress-induced norepinephrine cause?

Vasoconstriction of blood vessels Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of ACTH in the stress response?

To trigger cortisol release from the adrenal cortex Signup and view all the answers

What significant health outcome is most robustly linked to chronic stress?

Cardiovascular Disease Signup and view all the answers

Which process is accelerated by chronic stress, potentially impacting overall health?

Cellular aging Signup and view all the answers

What physiological effect does chronic stress have on the risk of hypertension?

Contributes to vascular constriction Signup and view all the answers

According to the stress reactivity hypothesis, what is the primary influence of stress on health outcomes?

Behavioral changes leading to health issues Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a cardiovascular disease linked to chronic stress?

Myocardial infarction Signup and view all the answers

What is one long-term cardiovascular effect of chronic stress activation of the SAM system?

Thickening of arterial walls Signup and view all the answers

How does hypertension affect the body's catecholamine levels?

It increases catecholamine levels Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of the Reactivity Hypothesis in relation to cardiovascular health?

High cardiovascular responses can predict future pathologies Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes the relationship between stress and hypertension in the studied cohort?

Reactive participants had increased odds of developing hypertension Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of cholesterol (LDL) buildup along arterial walls?

Risk of atherosclerosis Signup and view all the answers

What does the Bidirectional Multi-System Reactivity Hypothesis predict about stress responses?

Stress responses affect future mental and physical health Signup and view all the answers

How does chronic stress contribute to cellular aging?

It decreases cellular repair mechanisms Signup and view all the answers

In the context of stress and cardiovascular health, what does the term 'fight-or-flight' refer to?

Increased physiological readiness for action Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of LDL cholesterol in the body?

Transfers cholesterol to arterial walls Signup and view all the answers

Which lifestyle modification is suggested to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease?

Control obesity Signup and view all the answers

What condition is characterized by excess levels of LDL cholesterol in the blood?

Hypercholesterolemia Signup and view all the answers

Which lifestyle intervention was shown to have interactive effects in reducing coronary risk?

Exercise, diet, and stress management together Signup and view all the answers

What is one effect of chronic stress on cardiovascular health?

Increased risk of hypertension Signup and view all the answers

Which factor has been identified as more predictive of health risks than BMI?

Abdominal obesity Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of a multicomponent secondary coronary heart disease prevention program?

To evaluate the effects of health behavior changes Signup and view all the answers

How does managing stress contribute to heart health?

By lowering total cholesterol levels Signup and view all the answers

What is the impact of excessive glucocorticoid secretion on the hippocampus over time?

Imposes neurotoxic effects Signup and view all the answers

How is amygdala activity correlated with mental health symptoms?

Increased amygdala activity correlates with severity of symptoms Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary lifestyle behavior recommended for managing depression?

Participating in exercise and social engagement Signup and view all the answers

What finding was noted regarding cortisol levels in individuals with major depressive disorder (MDD) compared to controls?

Higher basal cortisol levels in MDD Signup and view all the answers

What change in the anterior cingulate cortex is commonly observed in individuals with major depressive disorder (MDD)?

Smaller volume with increased activity Signup and view all the answers

What is a key outcome of hyperactivity in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) in OCD patients?

Overestimation of threat Signup and view all the answers

How does exposure to stressful life events in childhood impact the likelihood of developing OCD in adulthood?

It increases the likelihood of developing OCD. Signup and view all the answers

What can excessive stress lead to in terms of brain structure?

Atrophy of the frontal cortices and caudate nucleus Signup and view all the answers

What is a notable symptom of PTSD that separates it from other anxiety disorders?

Exaggerated startle response Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is primarily responsible for executive dysfunction in OCD?

Dysregulation of brain circuitry Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the brain is notably affected in PTSD, showing atrophy?

Hippocampus Signup and view all the answers

What is primarily impaired when stress results in habitual behavior control?

Goal-directed behavior Signup and view all the answers

What common emotional responses are included in PTSD beyond fear and anxiety?

Guilt, shame, and anger Signup and view all the answers

What kind of study showed a correlation between stressful life events and the development of OCD?

Longitudinal study Signup and view all the answers

What role does the amygdala play in relation to fear responses in PTSD?

It increases activation to fearful faces. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes agoraphobia?

Fear of being outside or in public spaces Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of compulsions in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)?

To alleviate anxiety or distress Signup and view all the answers

What is a likely consequence of increased amygdala activation in individuals with anxiety disorders?

Increased impulsivity and compulsivity Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines social phobia?

Intense fear of social scrutiny Signup and view all the answers

How does interoceptive sensitivity relate to anxiety?

It heightens awareness of bodily sensations Signup and view all the answers

What is a common characteristic of specific phobias?

Exaggerated fear of specific objects or situations Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of decreased prefrontal cortex (PFC) activation in anxiety disorders?

Increased vulnerability to negative stimuli Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes obsessions in OCD?

Recurrent and intrusive thoughts causing distress Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors is suggested to influence happiness beyond income and wealth?

Family and social support Signup and view all the answers

What do top-down theories of happiness emphasize about individual happiness?

Personal perspectives and resilience impact happiness. Signup and view all the answers

Which condition is necessary to experience a state of flow?

A perceived challenge that stretches skills Signup and view all the answers

Which concept describes the idea that happiness may be a baseline influenced by personal factors?

Happiness Set Point Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential benefit of cultivating positive emotions according to positive psychology principles?

Building resilience and coping mechanisms Signup and view all the answers

What outcome is associated with positive emotions in Cohn & Fredrickson's research?

A broader focus on potential actions Signup and view all the answers

Which dimension is NOT part of Carol Ryff's model of psychological well-being?

Financial stability Signup and view all the answers

According to the subjectivist view of happiness, which component is essential for subjective well-being?

Positive affect Signup and view all the answers

What does the happiness set point concept suggest about individual happiness levels?

They fluctuate within a genetically influenced range. Signup and view all the answers

In the prescriptive view of happiness, what is emphasized as critical for well-being?

Achieving certain life conditions Signup and view all the answers

Which research finding supports the Broaden Hypothesis?

Positive emotions correlate with a global focus. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of subjective well-being involves evaluating important life domains?

Satisfaction with important life domains Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect best aligns with Aristotle's virtue theory of happiness?

Eudaimonia Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of variance in well-being is attributed to genetic variation according to Lykken and Tellegen's findings?

44% - 52% Signup and view all the answers

According to research, what is the approximate annual income at which emotional well-being levels plateau?

$75,000 Signup and view all the answers

What concept refers to the tendency for happiness levels to return to baseline after the initial excitement of a new stimulus wears off?

Hedonic adaptation Signup and view all the answers

Which personality trait is positively associated with substantial changes in happiness set-point according to Headey's findings?

Extraversion Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary finding of Lucas regarding adaptation in happiness levels after major life events?

Adaptation varies by life event type Signup and view all the answers

What factors are critical in determining substantial changes to an individual's happiness set-point?

Personality traits and choice of life goals Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between emotional well-being and daily life predictors as reported in the Gallup-Healthways Well-Being Index?

Health and social connections are better predictors Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of resilience relate to the overall understanding of happiness?

Resilient individuals may achieve personal growth through adversity. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Stress and Coping

Manageability is the ability to access internal and external coping resources to manage stress
Meaningfulness is the ability to emotionally make sense of a stressful situation or experience, seeing it as a challenge rather than a burden
Sense of Coherence (SOC) is a resource that promotes resilience and positive health outcomes
SOC was linked to positive psychological outcomes for Holocaust survivors and their offspring

Defining Stress & Stressors

Stress is a multifaceted construct involving inputs (stressors), processes (coping, personality), and outputs (stress response)
Stressors are stimuli or events that elicit a stress response
Stressors can be physical or psychological, absolute (objective) or relative (subjective)
Stressors can be external or internal
Stress exposure can be acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term)

STUN - Ingredients to Stress Perception

STUN is an acronym for the four key ingredients to the perception of stress, developed by John W. Mason
Sense of Control is Low - feeling unable to control or change the situation
Threat to the Ego - fear of negative evaluation by others or self-judgment
Unpredictability - lack of knowledge about what to expect or how long the situation will last
Novelty - first-time encounter with the situation
More ingredients in the mix lead to more stress

Theories of Stress

Stress System Theory (Biological) focuses on the physical responses to stress
- Fight-or-Flight Response (Cannon) - the body's automatic response to danger, preparing the body for action
- General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) (Selye) - a three-stage model of the body's response to prolonged stress
- Allostatic Load (McEwen) - the cumulative wear and tear on the body from repeated or chronic stress
- Allostatic Load Index - a composite score measuring the impact of stress on various biological systems including neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, metabolic, and immune function
Resource Theory focuses on individual coping strategies
- Transactional Model of Stress (Lazarus) - stress arises from the interaction between individuals and their environments based on appraisal of stressors as threatening or challenging
- Salutogenic Model of Stress (Antonovsky) - emphasizes the role of resources and coping strategies for maintaining health, focuses on the sense of coherence (SOC) as a key resource
Tend-and-Befriend Theory - a biological and social response to stress, characterized by nurturing behaviors towards offspring and seeking social support

Walter Cannon (1871-1945) and the Fight-or-Flight Response

Homeostasis - the body’s natural state of maintaining balanced physiological processes
Fight-or-Flight Response - the body’s immediate response to danger, mediated by the autonomic nervous system (ANS)
- Increased heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, and serum cholesterol
- This response is automatic and prepares the body for immediate action.
Fight-Flight or Freeze Response - in some cases, freezing can be an adaptive survival response.
- Freezing can be aversive and result in an inability to adapt completely

Hans Selye (1907 – 1982) and the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

GAS - a three-stage model of the body’s response to prolonged stress
- Alarm Stage - the initial response to stress where the body is mobilized for action
  - Increased heart rate, blood pressure, and cortisol levels
- Resistance Stage - the body adapts to the continued stress, but resources are depleted
  - Stress levels stabilize
- Exhaustion Stage - the body's resources are depleted and can no longer cope with the stress.
  - The body becomes vulnerable to disease and illness.

Bruce McEwen (1938 – 2020) and Allostatic Load

Allostasis - the body’s ability to adapt to changing environments
Allostatic Load (AL) - the cumulative wear and tear on the body from repeated or chronic stress.
- Excessive activation of stress-sensitive systems can lead to allostatic overload and health problems.
- Allostatic Load is measured using a composite score (AL index) that includes factors like neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, metabolic, and immune function.

Richard Lazarus (1922-2002) and the Transactional Model of Stress

Stress Appraisals - The way individuals interpret and evaluate a situation
Primary Appraisal - The first step in Lazarus's model, involves assessing the significance of a situation as threatening, challenging, or benign.
Secondary Appraisal - The second step involves evaluating one's coping resources and ability to manage the situation
Stress arises from the interaction between individuals and their environments based on appraisal of stressors as threatening or challenging.

Aaron Antonovsky (1923-1994) and the Salutogenic Model of Stress

Focuses on factors that promote health and well-being, rather than focusing on factors that cause illness
Sense of Coherence (SOC)- a key resource that promotes health and resilience, characterized by a feeling of understandability, manageability, and meaningfulness.
The SOC helps individuals to cope with stressful situations and maintain a healthy balance in life.
The Salutogenic Model provides a more positive perspective on stress and suggests that individuals can actively promote their own health and well-being.

The Nervous System

The nervous system is comprised of the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
The CNS includes the brain and spinal cord.
The PNS includes all the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.

The Central Nervous System (CNS)

The CNS consists of 100 billion neurons and 1 trillion glial cells.
The CNS controls bodily functions, thoughts, emotions, and behavior.

Selective Overview of CNS Structures of the Forebrain

The forebrain is the largest part of the brain and is responsible for higher-level cognitive functions.
The forebrain is divided into the telencephalon and diencephalon.
The telencephalon includes the cerebral cortex, limbic system, and basal ganglia.
The diencephalon includes the thalamus and hypothalamus.

Cerebral Cortex (Neocortex)

The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the brain and is responsible for higher-level cognitive functions, including language, memory, and reasoning.
The cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes: frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital.
The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is located in the frontal lobe and is responsible for executive functioning and behavioral regulation.

Limbic System

The limbic system is a group of structures that are involved in emotions, motivation, and memory.
The limbic system includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC).
The hippocampus is involved in memory formation.
The amygdala is involved in emotions, especially fear.
The ACC is involved in emotional control.

Basal Ganglia

The basal ganglia are a group of structures that are involved in movement, learning, and reward.
The basal ganglia play an important role in motor control, vigilance/attention, and procedural learning.

Thalamus

The thalamus is a relay center for sensory information.
The thalamus is responsible for regulating consciousness, sleep, and alertness.

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is responsible for maintaining homeostasis.
The hypothalamus controls the autonomic nervous system and endocrine system.
The hypothalamus is involved in regulating fighting, feeding, fleeing, mating, sleeping, and drinking.

Selective Overview: Midbrain & Hindbrain

The midbrain and hindbrain are located at the base of the brain and are responsible for basic life functions, such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.
The brain stem is located within the hindbrain and midbrain and contains the pons, medulla, and midbrain.

Locus Coeruleus

The locus coeruleus is located in the pons.
The locus coeruleus is involved in the physiological response to stress and produces norepinephrine (NE).

Reticular Formation

The reticular formation is a network of neurons that extends from the hindbrain to the diencephalon.
The reticular formation is important for attention, arousal, movement, and vital reflexes.

The Endocrine System

The endocrine system is a system of organs and glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
Hormones are chemical messengers that travel through the blood to target cells and organs.
The endocrine system works with the sympathetic nervous system during fight-or-flight activation to achieve a common outcome.

Important Glands and Their Hormones

The hypothalamus secretes corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), oxytocin, and vasopressin.
The pituitary gland secretes adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and beta-endorphin.
The adrenal cortex secretes glucocorticoids (GC)/cortisol.
The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine (E) and norepinephrine (NE).

Stress Response Systems

There are two important stress response systems: the sympathetic-adrenal-medulla (SAM) axis and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis.
These systems are interconnected and function independently.
The SAM axis has a fast response, within seconds, and lasts for minutes.
The HPA axis has a slow response, within minutes, and lasts for hours.

SAM Axis

The SAM axis is activated by stress, activates the autonomic nervous system (ANS), and stimulates the adrenal medulla to release epinephrine (E) and norepinephrine (NE).
The SAM axis is involved in the fight-or-flight response, which prepares the body to respond to a threat.
The SAM axis is responsible for physiological changes that occur during stress, such as increased heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration.

HPA Axis

The HPA axis is activated by stress, begins in the hypothalamus, and secretes CRH.
The hypothalamus alerts the pituitary gland to secrete ACTH.
ACTH travels to the adrenal cortex and stimulates the production of glucocorticoids (GC), also known as cortisol.
Cortisol is the primary stress hormone.
The HPA axis is responsible for long-term stress responses, such as changes in metabolism, immune function, and energy expenditure.
The HPA axis works with the SAM axis to regulate stress responses.

The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The PNS includes all the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.
The PNS is responsible for transmitting information between the CNS and the body's organs and tissues.
The PNS is divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

Somatic Nervous System

The somatic nervous system is responsible for voluntary movement.
The somatic nervous system controls the skeletal muscles.
The somatic nervous system allows us to move our bodies in response to our environment.

Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary bodily functions.
The autonomic nervous system controls internal organs such as heart, lungs, stomach, and intestines.
The autonomic nervous system has two branches: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for the fight-or-flight response.
When the sympathetic nervous system is activated, it prepares the body for action, such as running away from a threat.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for the rest-and-digest response.
When the parasympathetic nervous system is activated, it helps the body relax and conserve energy.
The parasympathetic nervous system is active when the body is at rest.

### Housekeeping

Pleasant Events Calendar due tomorrow
Complete Unpleasant Events Calendar this week
Paper topic is due

Take Away from Last Week

Understanding stress requires understanding the body's response
This knowledge provides perspective and informs how stress impacts health
Identifying stress in the body provides a target for intervention
Chronic stress is linked to many poor health outcomes
Chronic stress accelerates cellular aging
Stress is subjective, and the relationship between chronic stress and health outcomes can be influenced

Class 3 Objectives

Explore the relationship between chronic stress and physical health outcomes
- Cardiovascular Disease (most robust)
- Skeletal Muscle Tension
- Atopic Disorder
- Cancer
- Gastrointestinal Disorder
- Type II Diabetes

Cardiovascular Disease (CVD)

CVD affects the heart or blood vessels
Leading cause of death globally
Coronary Arterial Disease (CAD) is a progressive inflammatory disease involving atherosclerosis (clogged arteries)
Myocardial Infarction (heart attack) occurs when the heart lacks blood supply due to a blocked coronary artery, leading to tissue death (angina is a warning sign of inadequate blood supply)
- Most common type of CVD (30-50%)
Stroke (Cerebrovascular Disease) occurs when the brain lacks blood supply and oxygen (Ischemic) or due to a ruptured blood vessel (hemorrhagic)

CVD: Stress-System Activation

The SAM system activation increases heart rate, blood pressure and stress hormone release, leading to greater cardiovascular output (fight or flight response)
The heart contracts more forcefully, increasing wear and tear on arteries over time. (remember allostatic load)
- Arteriosclerosis results from the thickening and stiffening of arterial walls
Increased cholesterol (LDL) and triglycerides in the blood
- LDL cholesterol builds up in the arteries, leading to atherosclerosis

CVD: Hypertension

Hypertension is persistently elevated blood pressure in the arteries
- Systolic blood pressure is the highest pressure exerted by the heart during each beat
- Diastolic blood pressure is the pressure of the blood against the arterial walls when the heart is relaxed
Individuals with hypertension are more likely to have high catecholamine levels

The Reactivity Hypothesis

Exaggerated or high cardiovascular responses during acute stressors indicate increased susceptibility to future cardiovascular pathology (Light 1981; Obrist, 1981)

CVD: Hypertension (Study)

Design: 3-year follow-up of a workplace cohort
Participants: 479 healthy men and women (63 years old)
Measurement: Salivary cortisol reactivity to mental challenge
Outcome: Reactive participants (40%) had a 1.59 times higher chance of developing hypertension (Hamer & Septoe, 2012, J Clin Endocrinol Metab)

Bidirectional Multi-system Reactivity

Bidirectional Multi-system Reactivity Hypothesis: The magnitude of the response to acute psychological stress (exaggerated or blunted) in both the SAM system and HPA Axis in healthy adults is related to future health and disease outcomes, both physical and mental (Turner et al., 2020).

CVD: Hypercholesterolemia

Lipoproteins transport lipids, including cholesterol
- LDL (Low-density lipoprotein) is bad cholesterol that transfers cholesterol to arterial walls, leading to clogged arteries
- HDL (High-density lipoprotein) is good cholesterol that transfers cholesterol to the liver for breakdown
Hypercholesterolemia is an excess of LDL cholesterol in the blood
- Excess cholesterol accumulates on blood vessel walls, leading to blockages that reduce blood flow to the heart and brain

CVD: Prevention

90% of CVD risk can be modified through lifestyle changes
Lifestyle prevention strategies:
- Don't smoke
- Eat fruits and vegetables, low saturated fats
- Exercise
- Lower cholesterol
- Manage obesity (abdominal obesity and waist-to-hip ratio are more predictive than BMI)
- Prevent diabetes and metabolic syndrome
- Manage stress
- Prevent high blood pressure
- Use alcohol in moderation (Yusuf, 2004, Lancet)

CVD: Tx Prognosis

Multicomponent secondary coronary heart disease (CHD) prevention program
- Objective: Evaluate the effects of changes in health behaviors over a 3-month period
- Participants: 869 CHD patients
- Intervention: Multi-site Cardiac Lifestyle Intervention Program (Exercise, Diet, and/or Stress management)
- Outcome: Coronary risk reduction
- Results: 3 Lifestyle interventions individually and combined improved coronary risk
  - Exercise: Reduced total cholesterol
  - Low-fat diet: Reduced weight, total cholesterol, LDL
  - Stress management: Reduced weight, LDL, triglycerides, hostility (Daubenmier et al Ann Beh Med 2007)

CVD: Tx Prognosis

Research Question: Can comprehensive lifestyle changes halt or reverse coronary atherosclerosis?

OCD and the Brain

The cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical (CBGTC) loop is involved in OCD symptom provocation.
Hyperactivity in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) leads to overestimation of threat and disrupts the balance between habit formation and goal-directed networks.
This imbalance contributes to impaired goal-directed behavior in OCD patients.

Stress and OCD

25-67% of OCD patients report significant life events, many of which are stressful, related to the onset of their OCD.
Individuals who report experiencing traumatic events in childhood are 5-9 times more likely to develop OCD in adulthood compared to those without a trauma history.
Excessive stress can lead to atrophy in the frontal cortices and caudate nucleus, impacting goal-directed behaviors and promoting habitual behaviors.
Executive dysfunction is a key factor in OCD, rather than emotional dysregulation.

Anxiety: PTSD

PTSD involves reactions to traumatic stressors that lead to re-experiencing the event, avoidance behaviors, and increased arousal.
Traumatic events include those involving actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence.
Avoidance behaviors may include emotional numbing, detachment, repression, and avoiding places that remind individuals of the trauma.
Increased arousal can manifest as poor concentration, exaggerated startle response, hypervigilance, and irritability.
PTSD may involve emotions beyond fear and anxiety, including guilt, shame, and anger.

PTSD and the Brain

Increased activation of the amygdala and decreased activation of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) occur when viewing fearful faces in individuals with PTSD.
Atrophy of the hippocampus is observed in PTSD.

Anxiety: Phobia

Phobias are characterized by unreasonable or excessive fear of objects, situations, or activities.
There are three categories of phobias: agoraphobia, social phobia, and specific phobias.
Agoraphobia involves fear of public places or being outside the home due to potential panic attacks or embarrassment.
Social phobia centers around fear of social activities, particularly being scrutinized and embarrassed.
Specific phobias involve exaggerated fear of specific objects or situations not covered by the other two categories.

Anxiety and the Brain

Increased activation of the amygdala and decreased activation of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) occur when viewing negative stimuli, such as fearful faces, in individuals with anxiety disorders.
The PFC's ability to decrease amygdala activation is impaired in individuals with anxiety disorders.
High anxiety levels correlate with increased amygdala activation and decreased ventral anterior cingulate cortex (vACC) activation.

Anxiety: OCD

Obsessions are recurrent and persistent thoughts, urges, or images that are intrusive, unwanted, and cause marked anxiety or distress.
Compulsions are ritualistic, repetitive behaviors or mental acts designed to neutralize anxiety and negative affect.
OCD is associated with decreased inhibitory control, leading to increased impulsivity and compulsivity.
Impairment in goal-directed behavior results in overreliance on maladaptive, habitual behaviors, contributing to the formation of compulsions.

Depression and the Brain

The hippocampus is smaller in volume and exhibits reduced neurogenesis in individuals with major depressive disorder (MDD).
The glucocorticoid cascade hypothesis suggests that excessive secretion of glucocorticoids crosses the blood-brain barrier and exerts neurotoxic effects on the hippocampus over time.
The amygdala shows increased blood flow and metabolism in MDD, with activity correlating with the severity of symptoms.
Faulty coupling between the amygdala and the PFC is observed in depression.
The (subgenual) anterior cingulate cortex (sgACC) is smaller in volume in MDD.
In healthy individuals, carriers of the 5HT s allele have a 25% reduction in sgACC volume, while increased activity is seen in the sgACC of depressed patients.

Depression and HPA Activity

Meta-analysis of studies on dexamethasone tests and basal HPA functioning in children and adolescents shows that individuals with MDD exhibit:
- Greater cortisol levels (non-suppression) following dexamethasone administration compared to controls.
- Higher basal cortisol levels compared to controls.
- Greater post-stress cortisol levels in MDD (although variation exists, with some studies suggesting blunted responses).

Depression: Treatment

Lifestyle behaviors such as exercise, nutrition, social engagement, and stress management can be beneficial for depression.
Pharmacological treatments, most commonly selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), are often used to manage symptoms of depression.
Other treatments include cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT).

Positive Emotions

Positive emotions increase the number of listed actions individuals want to take and promote a broader focus.
Negative emotions lead to fewer potential actions and a narrower focus.

Broaden & Build Theory

Broaden Hypothesis: Positive emotions broaden an individual's attention, promoting a more global focus compared to negative emotions which narrow attention.
Build Hypothesis: Engaging in pro-social activities like loving-kindness meditation can improve personal resources and happiness.

Well-being

Subjective View of Happiness: Defined by subjective well-being.
- Includes satisfaction with life, life domains (work, family, health), positive affect, and low negative affect.
Prescriptive View of Happiness: Emphasizes certain factors needed for well-being, aligned with Aristotle's virtue theory of happiness (eudaimonia).
- Ryff's Model of Psychological Well-being:
  - Autonomy: Ability to think independently and make decisions.
  - Self-Acceptance: Balanced and realistic self-view.
  - Positive Relations with Others: Ability to love, empathize, and connect.
  - Environmental Mastery: Self-efficacy in shaping experiences.
  - Purpose in Life: Direction and aims that guide behavior and decisions.
  - Personal Growth: Ability to learn and evolve; tapping into potential.

Happiness Set Point

Happiness Set Point: Individuals have a genetically determined set point for happiness that internal biological regulators try to maintain.
- This set point is relatively stable over time.
Heritability: Studies suggest that genetics play a significant role in individual happiness levels, accounting for 44-52% of well-being variance.
Hedonic Adaptation: Novelty of positive experiences tends to wear off, resulting in a return to baseline happiness levels.
- Lucas (2007): Found that adaptation is more likely for events like marriage, widowhood, and divorce, and less likely for disability and severe disability.
- Resilience: Individuals can adapt to and even thrive after negative experiences.
Set Point Fluctuation: Set points can change based on:
- Personality Traits: Extraversion (+) Neuroticism (-) Internal locus of control (+)
- Life Goals: Materialism (-) Family life (+) Altruism (+)

Does Money Buy Happiness?

Threshold Income: Research by Deaton & Kahneman (2010) suggests that emotional well-being plateaus around an annual income of $75,000 USD.
- This income level appears to be more related to emotional well-being, while factors such as health, loneliness, and smoking have a stronger impact on day-to-day well-being.
Global Happiness Research: A PNAS study (Galbraith et al. 2023) examined happiness levels in Indigenous and local communities across 19 sites worldwide.
- While income levels were significantly lower in some communities, many reported happiness levels comparable to wealthy nations.
- This suggests that factors beyond income, such as social support, spirituality, and connection to nature, may be important contributors to well-being.

Happiness Theories

Bottom-up Theory: Life experiences and circumstances directly influence happiness.
Top-down Theory: Our internal happiness levels shape our perception of life's circumstances.

Flow State

Flow: An experience of complete absorption in the present moment, characterized by merging consciousness with an event.
Conditions for Flow:
- A perceived challenge that stretches, but doesn't exceed, existing skills.
- Clear goals and immediate feedback on progress.
Subjective State of Flow:
- Intense and focused concentration on the present moment.
- Merging of action and awareness, loss of reflective self-consciousness.
- Temporal distortion.
- Intrinsic reward.

Studying That Suits You

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Description

This quiz explores key concepts related to stress and coping mechanisms, including manageability, meaningfulness, and the sense of coherence. Understand how different stressors can impact individuals both physically and psychologically, along with the ingredients that affect stress perception. Test your knowledge on these essential psychological constructs.