Psychology Chapter on Personality and Conditioning

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Questions and Answers

What is the main reason that introverts may avoid social situations?

They prefer solitary activities over group activities.

They experience higher levels of psychological comfort in solitude.

They have lower levels of physiological arousal compared to extroverts.

They have higher levels of physiological arousal that may increase their discomfort. (correct)

What has research indicated about the physiological differences between introverts and extroverts?

Introverts and extroverts have identical physiological responses.

There is consistent evidence showing introverts have lower arousal levels.

Introverts consistently show higher physiological arousal in studies. (correct)

Extroverts show higher levels of conditioned inhibition compared to introverts.

What does Eysenck attribute a part of introversion to?

Inconsistencies in personality traits across cultures.

Physiological basis linked to higher arousal levels. (correct)

Environmental factors predominantly shaping personality.

The absence of social interaction in early life.

How do researchers assess hereditary influence in twin studies?

By comparing the resemblance of identical and fraternal twins. Signup and view all the answers

What could be inferred if identical twins show more personality resemblance than fraternal twins?

There is a strong genetic influence on personality traits. Signup and view all the answers

What do behaviourists focus on in understanding personality?

Observable response tendencies Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of a conditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?

It acquires the ability to evoke a response through conditioning. Signup and view all the answers

What was the unconditioned stimulus in Pavlov's experiments?

The meat powder Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes unconditioned responses?

Reflexive responses that do not require learning Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant finding of Pavlov's work on classical conditioning?

Reflexes can be conditioned through associations. Signup and view all the answers

How did Pavlov change the dog's response to the tone?

By conditioning the tone with the meat powder Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements regarding classical conditioning is true?

Conditioning can create new reflexive responses from neutral stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between punishment and negative reinforcement?

Punishment follows a response with an unpleasant stimulus, while negative reinforcement removes one. Signup and view all the answers

In Skinner's theory, what typically happens when a response is followed by an unpleasant stimulus?

The response tends to be weakened. Signup and view all the answers

What does Skinner’s mechanical view of conditioning primarily ignore?

Individual mental processes and cognition. Signup and view all the answers

According to Bandura's social learning theory, how does cognition affect behavior?

Thought processes are essential in acquiring knowledge. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes punishment in the context of behaviorism?

Punishment can occur whenever a response leads to negative consequences. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of human behavior does Bandura argue is overlooked by Skinner's theory?

The cognitive processes involved in behavior. Signup and view all the answers

How does Skinner's perspective categorize human responsiveness to reinforcement?

As automatic and devoid of conscious thought. Signup and view all the answers

Why might someone choose not to repeat an action that led to an unpleasant experience, according to the principles of punishment?

Because the action was punished by social consequences. Signup and view all the answers

What does it mean for behavior to be shaped through learning in both Skinner’s and Bandura's theories?

Both theories suggest behavior change as a direct result of environmental stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key criticism of humanistic theories in psychology?

They propose hypotheses that are difficult to scientifically test. Signup and view all the answers

Which concept is highlighted as important by the humanistic approach?

The self-concept Signup and view all the answers

What are humanists criticized for regarding their view of human nature?

Being overly optimistic in their assumptions. Signup and view all the answers

Why is the humanistic approach considered to have inadequate evidence?

It is based primarily on uncontrolled observations. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of humanistic psychology has been considered difficult to define and measure?

Self-actualization Signup and view all the answers

What shift in focus have behavioral theorists made as a result of humanistic theories?

From behavioral patterns to subjective views. Signup and view all the answers

Self-actualisers are described as being:

Accurate in their tune to reality. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key contribution of the humanistic perspective to psychology?

Focus on subjective views surpassing objective reality. Signup and view all the answers

In what way do humanistic theories differ from psychodynamic theories?

They do not focus on unconscious processes. Signup and view all the answers

What is considered a strength of humanistic psychology?

It promotes understanding of psychological health. Signup and view all the answers

What is the highest need in Maslow's motivational hierarchy?

Self-actualisation Signup and view all the answers

Which need follows after physiological needs in Maslow's hierarchy?

Safety and security needs Signup and view all the answers

What typically happens if lower needs are not satisfied, according to Maslow?

Regression occurs Signup and view all the answers

What term did Maslow use to describe people with exceptionally healthy personalities?

Self-actualising persons Signup and view all the answers

According to Maslow, what is primarily hindered if you cannot fully use your talents?

Self-actualisation Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is classified as a growth need in Maslow's hierarchy?

Esteem needs Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes self-actualising persons according to Maslow's research?

Commitment to continued personal growth Signup and view all the answers

Maslow's need for self-actualisation emphasizes the importance of what?

Fulfillment of potential Signup and view all the answers

What happens to a person who is capable of great musical talent but is forced to work as an accountant?

Frustration of self-actualisation Signup and view all the answers

What type of needs are aesthetic needs classified as in Maslow's hierarchy?

Growth needs Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Theories of Personality

Personality is a fairly consistent tendency to behave in a particular way across various situations.
Distinctiveness is also central to the concept of personality. Everyone has traits but each person is unique.
Personality refers to an individual's unique pattern of consistent behavioural traits.

Personality Traits

Personality traits are specific aspects of personality.
A trait is a durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a variety of situations.
Examples of traits include: honest, dependable, moody, impulsive, suspicious.
Some traits are more basic than others. For example, impulsiveness, restlessness, irritability, and impatience might all derive from a more basic tendency to be excitable.

The Big Five Personality Traits

Extraversion: outgoing, sociable, cheerful, friendly, assertive. Referred to as positive emotionality.
Neuroticism: anxious, hostile, self-conscious, insecure, and vulnerable. Referred to as negative emotionality.
Openness: curiosity, flexibility, vivid fantasy, imaginative, artistic sensitivity, and unconventional attitudes.
Agreeableness: sympathetic, trusting, cooperative, modest, and straightforward.
Conscientiousness: diligent, disciplined, well-organized, punctual, and dependable.

Psychodynamic Perspectives

Psychodynamic theories focus on unconscious mental forces.
Sigmund Freud was a physician in neurology. He often treated people troubled by nervous problems (irrational fears, obsessions, and anxieties).
He developed psychoanalysis, a procedure requiring lengthy verbal interactions in which he probed deeply into patients' lives.
Freud's theory became popular, but some psychologists were uncomfortable with his theory for several reasons: his theory claimed that unconscious forces govern human behaviour, children's experiences strongly influence adult personality, and his assertions about sexual urges.

Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory

Freud divided personality structure into three components: the id, the ego, and the superego.

The Id

The id is the primitive, instinctive component of personality that operates according to the pleasure principle. It houses the raw biological urges.
The id operates according to the pleasure principle which demands immediate gratification of its urges.
The id engages in primary-process thinking, which is primitive, illogical, irrational, and fantasy-oriented.

The Ego

The ego is the decision-making component of personality that operates according to the reality principle.
The ego mediates between the id and the external social world, considering norms and suitable behaviour.
The ego is guided by the reality principle, which seeks to delay gratification of the id's urges until suitable outlets and situations can be found.
The ego engages in secondary-process thinking, which is relatively rational, realistic, and oriented toward problem-solving.

The Superego

The superego is the moral component of personality that incorporates social standards about what represents right and wrong.
Throughout life, individuals receive training about what is good and bad behavior.
The superego emerges out of the ego and puts pressure on the individual to live up to standards.
In some people, the superego can become irrationally demanding.

Levels of Consciousness

Conscious: one's awareness at a particular point in time.
Preconscious: just below the surface of awareness.
Unconscious: thoughts, memories, and desires that are below the surface of conscious awareness.

Freud's Conflict and Defence Mechanisms

Behaviour is the outcome of ongoing conflicts among the id, ego, and superego.
Freud believed that conflicts involving sexual and aggressive impulses were especially likely to have bigger consequences.
Anxiety, distressing, leads to the use of defence mechanisms, largely unconscious reactions that protect a person from painful emotions.
Defence mechanisms include rationalization, repression, projection, displacement, reaction formation, regression, and identification.

Freud's Theory of Development: Psychosexual Stages

Freud argued that the foundation of an individual's personality is laid down by the age of 5.
Psychosexual stages are developmental periods with a sexual focus.
Fixation occurs when a person does not move forward from one stage as expected, which is caused by excessive gratification or frustration.

Behavioral Perspectives

Behaviourism holds that scientific psychology should study observable behaviour.
Watson argued that psychology should abandon its earlier focus on the mind and mental processes, instead focusing on overt (obvious/unconcealed) behaviour.
Watson favoured a view of personality as a collection of response tendencies tied to various stimulus situations.
Behaviourists see little interest in internal personality structures (e.g,. id, ego, superego).

Pavlov's Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning occurs when a neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus.
In Pavlov's experiment, a tone, initially a neutral stimulus, was paired with meat powder, a stimulus that naturally elicited salivation.
Through repeated pairings, the tone became a conditioned stimulus and elicited salivation.
The conditioned stimulus, through learning, elicits a conditioned response - in this case salivation.

Skinner's Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which voluntary responses are controlled by their consequences.
Actions followed by reinforcements are more likely to occur again, whereas actions followed by punishments or neutral consequences are less likely to occur again.
Positive reinforcement: a response is strengthened when followed by a pleasant stimulus.
Negative reinforcement: a response is strengthened when followed by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus.
Punishment: a response is weakened when followed by the arrival of an unpleasant stimulus.
Extinction: the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response.

Bandura's social learning theory recognises the role of cognition.
Observational learning occurs when one individual's behaviour is influenced by observing another individual.
Children learn by observing and imitating others (models).

Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy is one's belief about one's ability to perform behaviours that lead to expected outcomes.
High self efficacy leads to confidence in executing responses.

Evaluating Behavioural Perspectives

Well-grounded in empirical research.
Pavlov's model sheds light on emotional responses.
Skinner's work shows how personality is shaped by consequences.
Bandura's theory acknowledges observation's influence on behaviour.
However, criticism exists regarding oversimplicity.

Humanistic Perspectives

Humanistic theory emphasizes human potential for personal growth, free will, and subjective experience.
Humanists criticize psychodynamic and behavioural theories as dehumanizing, focusing instead on human unique qualities.
Key figures such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow highlight the importance of self-concept.
They believe that our subjective view of the world (our self-concept) is more important than our objective reality.

Maslow's Theory of Self-Actualisation

Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs, arranged according to priority. Basic needs (physiological, safety) must be met before less basic needs (belongingness, esteem, self-actualization) are aroused.
Self-actualising individuals fulfill their potential and have characteristics like being realistic, at peace with themselves, and tuned in to reality.

Evaluating Humanistic Perspectives

Offers a refreshing perspective, highlighting the importance of subjective experience.
Prompts consideration of subjective personal factors, such as beliefs and expectations.
Focuses on healthy personality.
However, criticism exists regarding less empirical support and a potentially unrealistic view of human nature.

Biological Perspectives

This perspective emphasizes the hereditary roots of personality.
Research on identical twins separated early in life reveals significant similarities in personality, suggesting a strong genetic influence.
Twin studies and other research methods have explored the impact of genetics on personality and behaviour.
Eysenck's theory highlights the role of inheritance in conditioning and personality traits.
Evolutionary factors and adaptive behaviours explain behavioural traits. This perspective focuses on how the given personality trait contributes to the reproductive success of a given species over many generations.

Evaluating Biological Perspectives

Well-rooted in scientific research, especially the use of twin studies, offering credible evidence.
Useful for understanding the biological contribution to conditioning and personality traits.
Limitations lie in inadequate theoretical grounding and empirical support. Difficulties exist in explaining intricate interactions between heredity and environment.
Evolutionary explanations are often rather speculative.

Theoretical Diversity

There are several competing theories attempting to explain personality.
Different theories emphasize different aspects of behaviour, and perspectives.
Various viewpoints offer complementary understanding of behaviour, better than a single interpretation. These different perspectives are critical for the development of a more rounded understanding of personality.

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Description

This quiz explores key concepts in psychology related to personality traits, focusing on introversion and extroversion, as well as classical conditioning principles. Participants will assess their understanding of research findings and fundamental theories from famous psychologists like Eysenck and Pavlov.