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Which of the following factors determines the intensity of instrumental activity according to Hull's theory?
Which of the following factors determines the intensity of instrumental activity according to Hull's theory?
According to Hull, the primary impulses that drive behavior include psychological factors only.
According to Hull, the primary impulses that drive behavior include psychological factors only.
False
What is the purpose of Hull's concept of homeostasis in learning?
What is the purpose of Hull's concept of homeostasis in learning?
To return to the original state as impulses decrease.
Hull divided mice into groups based on their fasting duration, including a withdrawal group and a ______ group.
Hull divided mice into groups based on their fasting duration, including a withdrawal group and a ______ group.
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What leads to the suppression of previous responses in Hull's theory?
What leads to the suppression of previous responses in Hull's theory?
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Match the following terms with their correct definitions:
Match the following terms with their correct definitions:
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According to Hull, all behavior is a response to learned stimuli only.
According to Hull, all behavior is a response to learned stimuli only.
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What term does Hull use to describe the lasting effects of external stimuli on sensory nerves?
What term does Hull use to describe the lasting effects of external stimuli on sensory nerves?
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What happens to the instantaneous reaction power if any of the following values is zero?
What happens to the instantaneous reaction power if any of the following values is zero?
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A learned response can occur even when the immediate effective reaction power is below the reaction threshold.
A learned response can occur even when the immediate effective reaction power is below the reaction threshold.
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What is latency in the context of responses to stimuli?
What is latency in the context of responses to stimuli?
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The conditioned response elicited by previously encountered stimuli in the maze is called the ______.
The conditioned response elicited by previously encountered stimuli in the maze is called the ______.
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Which of the following represents an independent variable in Hull’s concepts?
Which of the following represents an independent variable in Hull’s concepts?
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Inhibitory factors can prevent a conditioned response from occurring even after conditioning has taken place.
Inhibitory factors can prevent a conditioned response from occurring even after conditioning has taken place.
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How does the number of unreinforced responses relate to extinction?
How does the number of unreinforced responses relate to extinction?
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Match the following terms with their definitions:
Match the following terms with their definitions:
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Which of the following factors influences stimulus control?
Which of the following factors influences stimulus control?
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Stimulus generalization occurs when an organism responds differently to similar stimuli.
Stimulus generalization occurs when an organism responds differently to similar stimuli.
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What is the main finding from Reynolds' study on pigeons and pecking behavior?
What is the main finding from Reynolds' study on pigeons and pecking behavior?
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In avoidance learning, both classical and operant conditioning occur when the stimuli are associated with _____ and _____ outcomes.
In avoidance learning, both classical and operant conditioning occur when the stimuli are associated with _____ and _____ outcomes.
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Which statement best describes Hull's theory of avoidance?
Which statement best describes Hull's theory of avoidance?
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Implicit learning occurs only when an organism is actively seeking a reward.
Implicit learning occurs only when an organism is actively seeking a reward.
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Give an example of stimulus generalization.
Give an example of stimulus generalization.
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What is a key characteristic of insight learning?
What is a key characteristic of insight learning?
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According to Gestalt psychology, learning without understanding leads to long-term memory retention.
According to Gestalt psychology, learning without understanding leads to long-term memory retention.
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What does the 'Pre-solution period' refer to in insight learning?
What does the 'Pre-solution period' refer to in insight learning?
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According to John Holt, a new piece of information fits into the void like a missing piece of a _______.
According to John Holt, a new piece of information fits into the void like a missing piece of a _______.
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Match the following theories with their characteristics:
Match the following theories with their characteristics:
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What is expected when you ring a doorbell according to Tolman's learning theory?
What is expected when you ring a doorbell according to Tolman's learning theory?
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Reinforcement in Gestalt psychology reduces uncertainty.
Reinforcement in Gestalt psychology reduces uncertainty.
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What is said to be satisfying to a person in problem-solving according to Gestalt psychology?
What is said to be satisfying to a person in problem-solving according to Gestalt psychology?
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What effect does observing a peer interacting fearlessly with a fear-inducing stimulus have on fearful children?
What effect does observing a peer interacting fearlessly with a fear-inducing stimulus have on fearful children?
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Mirror neurons are inactive when children with autism observe the movement of others.
Mirror neurons are inactive when children with autism observe the movement of others.
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Who proposed that childhood learning creates cell clusters that influence subsequent learning?
Who proposed that childhood learning creates cell clusters that influence subsequent learning?
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The ________ neuron system is implicated in social learning and allows for imitation.
The ________ neuron system is implicated in social learning and allows for imitation.
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What is a characteristic of adult learning according to Hebb?
What is a characteristic of adult learning according to Hebb?
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Match the following learning theories or elements with their descriptions:
Match the following learning theories or elements with their descriptions:
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In the study with monkeys, the same nerves activated by holding an object were also activated while observing someone else hold it.
In the study with monkeys, the same nerves activated by holding an object were also activated while observing someone else hold it.
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Factors affecting ________ learning do not similarly affect adult learning.
Factors affecting ________ learning do not similarly affect adult learning.
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What is referred to as a 'cognitive map' in the context of Tolman's theory?
What is referred to as a 'cognitive map' in the context of Tolman's theory?
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Tolman's principle of least effort states that an organism will always choose the easiest path to reach a goal.
Tolman's principle of least effort states that an organism will always choose the easiest path to reach a goal.
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Name the two types of navigation cells discovered in the rat's brain as part of spatial navigation.
Name the two types of navigation cells discovered in the rat's brain as part of spatial navigation.
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According to Tolman, extinction occurs when learned expectations are not _______.
According to Tolman, extinction occurs when learned expectations are not _______.
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Match the following concepts with their descriptions:
Match the following concepts with their descriptions:
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Which of the following statements is true about social cognitive learning theory?
Which of the following statements is true about social cognitive learning theory?
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Learning by imitation is considered a form of classical conditioning.
Learning by imitation is considered a form of classical conditioning.
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Tolman's view emphasizes that if an organism does not get what it ______, it may lead to frustration and hinder learning.
Tolman's view emphasizes that if an organism does not get what it ______, it may lead to frustration and hinder learning.
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Study Notes
Theories of Learning
- Clark Hull (1884-1952) explained motivation and learning through scientific laws.
- Drive theory is a key component of Hull's theory.
- Hull's Reinforcement Theory posits that primary impulses (hunger, thirst) and biological/psychological impulses drive behavior.
- Homeostasis returns to its initial state as impulses decrease.
- Reducing impulses allows learning through stimulus-response relationality.
Hull's Concepts
- Need: Physiological imbalances.
- Drive: State of tension.
- Reinforcement: Reward (primary & secondary).
- Goal: Commodity that reduces drive.
- Need → Drive → Activity → Goal → Reduced Drive
- Unlearned behavior (SUR)
- Habit Strength (SHR)
- Reactive Inhibition(IR)
- Conditioned Inhibition (SIR)
- Effective reaction potential (SER)
Intensity of Instrumental Activity
- Drive (D) determines activity intensity and is related to the level of reward.
- Habit power (H) is influenced by past reinforcement of a behavior.
- Motivation (K) is altered by the level of the reward.
- Inhibition (I) reflects unrewarded behaviors in the past.
- SSt₨ = dürtü (D) * motiv (K) * alışma (H) – inhibition (I)
Factors Activating the Organism
- Impulse (D): Arousal created by deprivation or stimuli.
- Motivation (K): Arousal elicited by the reinforcing stimulus (size of reinforcer).
- Habit power (H): Strength of the link between stimulus and response.
- Inhibition (I): Suppression of previous responses that did not produce rewards.
Hull's Experiment on Mice
- Withdrawal group (3 hours and 22 hours fasted).
- Training group (10 trials and 5 trials).
- Trained to press a lever to receive food.
- Experimented with no food reward.
- Lever pressing behavior less intense during low impulse and low habit power periods.
Extrinsic Stimulus and Stimulant Residue
- External stimulus affects sensory nerves.
- Sensory nerve effect lasts a few seconds after stimulus disappearance.
- This is called the stimulus trace (Sr).
- External situation(S)
- Internal stimulus trace (s)
- External response (R)
- Response tendency(r)
Interaction of Sensory Stimulants
- Behavior results from many stimuli interactions.
- Extrinsic stimulus (S)
- Stimulant residues (s)
- Motor nerves (r)
- Elicited behavior (R)
Unlearned Behaviors (U₁)
- Organisms are born with reaction equipment to meet their needs.
- If a response doesn't reduce the need, another response is attempted.
- If internal responses don't satisfy the need, learning becomes necessary.
Conditions of Learning (Contiguity & Reduced Impulse)
- Stimulant causes a response, and the response meets a biological need, strengthening the stimulus-response bond.
- Primary reinforcement reduces need-fulfilling stimuli.
- Secondary reinforcement reduces need stimulants.
- Similar to Law of Effect (Thorndike).
- Habit power (SHR) increases with reinforced stimuli.
Stimulus Generalization
- Similar stimuli produce the same conditioned response.
- Previous experiences influence new learning.
Stimulus-Drive Bond
- Biological deprivation creates drive (D).
- Physical discomfort (thirst, hunger) accompanies drive.
- Reinforcement reduces drive symptoms.
Reaction Potential (E)
- Likelihood of a learned response at a given moment.
- Drive (D) and habit power (SHR) determine reaction potential.
- Learned response likely if drive and habit coincide.
Reactive Inhibition (I)
- Fatigue inhibits conditioned responses.
- A period of rest allows reactivation.
- Spaced repetition is better than continuous repetition.
Block Operation and Intermittent Operation
- Study on the ability to follow a moving disc.
- Interval group performs better.
Conditioned Inhibition
- Fatigue is a negative impulse state, reinforcing non-reaction.
- Conditioned inhibition (slr) is learning not to react.
- Reactive and conditional inhibition prevent learned responses.
Oscillation Effect
- The level of inhibition that prevents a learned response may vary.
- This varying inhibition is called the oscillating effect.
Reaction Threshold
- Learned response occurs when immediate effective reaction force exceeds threshold.
- Inhibitory factors may prevent response.
Response Probability (p)
- Probability of a response is related to immediate effective reaction potential (SER) & oscillation effect(SOR).
- Close to reaction threshold and dependent.
Latency
- Time between stimulus introduction and learned response.
- Shorter latency correlates with higher immediate effective reaction power.
Extinction
- More unreinforced responses increase the value of 'immediate effective reaction power'.
- Higher instant reaction power correlates with more produced responses.
- Resistance to extinction is determined by momentary effective reaction potential.
First Goal Response
- Conditioned responses to stimuli before receiving food are "partial, first goal responses".
Summary of Hull's concepts
- Independent Variables: Stimuli experimenter manipulates (e.g., stimulus intensity, work amount).
- Intervening Variables: Mental processes (e.g., habit strength, reactive inhibition).
- Dependent Variables: Measurable effects of IVs (e.g., response intensity, speed).
Discrimination of Stimulus
- Learned behaviors depend on certain environmental events.
- Researchers analyze the relative importance of environmental features in controlling responses.
Identification of the Stimulus
- The behavior in the presence and absence of the stimulus is observed.
- No response difference indicates no effect on behavior.
Differential Response and Stimulus Discrimination
- Pigeons are trained to peck a response switch with variable pitch patterns.
- The relative importance of the red circle and white triangle is analyzed.
Stimulus Generalization
- Organisms respond similarly to similar stimuli.
- Increase in difference leads to decrease in response.
Determinants of Stimulus Control
- Sensory capacity, orientation, intensity, and salience affect stimulus control.
- Motivational factors strongly influence stimulus control.
Hull's Theory vs Avoidance
- Avoidance combines classical and operant conditioning.
- Shock increases pain (reinforcer).
- Food reduces hunger (reinforcer).
Learning Discrimination
- Choosing one stimulus over another.
- Gestalt psychologists describe it as establishing a relational link between stimuli.
Implicit Learning
- Learning without explicit reinforcement.
- Mice are trained to find food and water without food or water as a reward.
- They can readily find food and water when placed in the maze.
- Learning strengthens the connection between events.
Intrinsic Motivation in Implicit Learning
- Reinforcement maintains response even without motivation.
- With motivation, the learned response occurs as a response to internal needs.
Extinction
- Hull: Response fatigue inhibits further response.
- Spence: Withdrawal of reinforcement leads to behavioral inhibition and fear.
Visceral Conditioning, Biofeedback
- Physiological responses (heart rate, blood pressure) can be influenced through training.
- Biofeedback aids in managing conditions like hypertension and migraines.
Neurofeedback
- Neurofeedback training is used to modify brainwave activity.
Gestalt Theory of Learning
- The whole is more than the sum of its parts.
- Learning involves understanding the essence of the problem.
Wolfgang Köhler's Experiment
- Problem solving in monkeys.
- Monkeys used tools (sticks, boxes) to obtain food.
Insight Learning
- Pre-solution Period: Experiment setting.
- Insight: A sudden understanding of the problem.
- Immediate, error-free performance of the learned task.
Absolute vs Relational Theory
- Absolute theory is behaviorist.
- Relational theory is Gestalt.
Education and Creative Thinking
- Learning through understanding is superior to memorization.
- Learning originates from the individual's understanding.
- Learning is readily generalized and remembered.
Reinforcement and Gestalt Psychology
- Solution satisfaction is comparable to achieving a need (e.g., hunger).
- Reinforcement reduces uncertainty.
- Knowledge acquisition is similar to completing a puzzle.
Tolman's Theory
- Sign Theory: Holistic behavior study instead of small behaviors.
- Purposive behavior and adaptation to conditions.
- Behavior driven by the goal to achieve.
- Learning through environmental discovery and sign use.
Tolman's Learning Theory
- Expectations guide actions, whether true or not.
- Reinforcement is not always necessary in learning.
- Contiguity of events influences learning.
Cognitive Map of Tolman
- Cognitive maps are created by exploring the environment.
- Stimuli are connected in relation to the goal, similar to maps.
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2014
- Research on how the brain functions as a GPS.
Place cells and Grid Cells
- Orange indicates place cells in the hippocampus.
- Gray area shows free movement, activating place cells.
- Blue refers to grid cells in the entorhinal cortex; they fire in a regular pattern, allowing identification of locations.
Tolman's Principle of Least Effort
- Organisms seek the path of least effort to reach a goal.
Reaction Learning vs Goal Learning
- Behaviorists focus on reactions related to stimuli.
- Tolman emphasizes goal-driven learning and using knowledge to reach goals.
Summary of Tolman's Theory
- Expectations are critical; lack of expectation incites anger.
- Extinction occurs when expectations are unmet
Social Cognitive Learning Theory
- Learning through observation.
Mimicking
- Involuntary reactions in infants (up to 3 months).
Miller and Dollard
- Imitation is a form of instrumental conditioning.
- Reinforcement strengthens imitation; intermittent reinforcement is effective.
- Imitation becomes a habit; tendency to imitate other behaviors.
Bandura
- Learning based on observation without reinforcement.
- Motivation impacts learning.
Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment
- Aggressive models with different consequences (reinforced, punished, neutral).
- Children imitated aggressive models, especially those who received reinforcement or lacked punishment.
Social Learning Theory – Reinforcers
- Social reinforcers: Appreciation, smiles, interest, praise.
- Self-reinforcers: Internally rewarding yourself after good behavior.
- Indirect reinforcement: Observing others being reinforced increases the behavior's likelihood.
Indirect Punishment and Motivation
- Seeing punished behavior discourages similar behavior.
- Successful behaviors inspire similar actions.
- Indirect emotional learning through observation (e.g., phobias).
Models
- Similar models lead to greater imitation similarity.
- High status models have a greater impact.
- Ineffective models negatively influence.
Impacts of Different Models on Children
- Real-life models are effective.
- Effectiveness is higher with fictional role models like cartoon heroes.
Principles of Social Cognitive Theory
- Mutual Determination: Individual behavior is impacted by the environment, behavior and personal characteristics.
- Symbolizing Capacity: Cognitive representations of past or future events help guide behavior.
Foresight Capacity
- Foresight helps regulate behavior based on predicted consequences and expectations.
- Past experiences form expectations of outcomes.
Self–Regulation Capacity and self–judgment capacity
- Self-regulation ability shaped individual behavior.
- Ability of self-judgment helps to understand and reflect yourself.
Observational Learning Processes
- Characteristics of the model (model's simplicity, attractiveness, & suitability).
- Observer's characteristics (sensory capacity, readiness, and preferences).
- Encoding and practicing observed behaviors: Retained and practiced, creating the desired activity.
- Motivation for behavioral transformation
Attention Process
- Attention is influenced by factors like adequacy of senses, experience relevance, and past reinforcement.
Retention Process
- Information is stored and integrated (mentally repeated).
Forming Behavior Process
- Learning transformation to performance.
- Physical and psychomotor factors are important.
Stages of Observational Learning
- Observer pays attention to the model's behavior.
- Observer encodes and rehearses the modeled behavior.
- Observer performs the learned activity.
- Observer finds motivation to act in the same manner.
What Can We Learn From Models?
- Psychomotor Skills
- Prohibitions
- Values and Beliefs
- Environmental and Material Skills
- Emotional Expression
Brain Activity in Social Learning
- Mirror Neurons: Nerve cells in monkeys that fire when performing or watching an action.
- Mirror neuron system: Neurobiological repetition of behavior.
- Yawning is associated with mirror neurons.
Mirror Neurons
- In humans, mirror neurons enable rapid imitation.
- Monkeys comprehend intent but lack the details.
What if Mirror Neurons Don't Work?
- Autism may be associated with impaired mirror neuron function: Children with autism do and think simple movements, but their mirror neurons do not fire when observing others.
- Problems in imitation and social interaction may result from this problem.
Neurophysiological Theory: D.Hebb
- Brain has formed cell clusters (cell assemblies) that are responsible to various environmental and associated things.
- Childhood learning forms framework for subsequent learning.
Sensory Deprivation and Enriched Environment
- Lack of stimulation negatively affects neurophysiological development (e.g., impaired thinking, hallucinations).
- Stimulating environment enhances learning & problem-solving, especially brain weight.
- Experiences influence brain development and functionality.
Enriched Environment
- Enriched stimulation improves learning and problem-solving.
- Neural circuits increase in response to diverse stimulation.
- This improves learning in new areas and conditions.
Cell Assemblies
- Cells stimulated by environmental objects and factors, and form assemblies.
Hebbian Learning
- Repeated neuron firing strengthens their connection (neurons that fire together wire together).
- This process results better learning and retention.
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Test your understanding of Hull's theory of learning and behavior in this insightful quiz. Explore key concepts such as homeostasis, intensity of instrumental activity, and the nature of conditioned responses. Perfect for students looking to deepen their knowledge of psychological principles.
