Psychology Chapter on Conditioning
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary difference between classical conditioning and instrumental conditioning?

  • Classical conditioning is based solely on human behaviors, while instrumental conditioning is based on animal behaviors.
  • Classical conditioning pairs two stimuli, while instrumental conditioning involves behavior controlling the outcome. (correct)
  • Classical conditioning relies on voluntary responses, while instrumental conditioning relies on involuntary responses.
  • In classical conditioning, a response is linked to a reinforcer, while in instrumental conditioning, responses are not linked.

In Pavlov's experiment with dogs, what was the conditioned response (CR)?

  • The salivation of the dog in response to the sound (correct)
  • The salivation of the dog when food is present
  • The sound of the metronome
  • The dog's attempt to escape when food is absent

What does the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) automatically elicit in classical conditioning?

  • Voluntary behavior
  • A conditioned response
  • Learning from the environment
  • An unconditioned response (correct)

Which of the following best describes the conditioned stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning?

<p>It is presented alongside the unconditioned stimulus to create an association. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In instrumental conditioning, what effect does a reinforcer have on behavior?

<p>It increases the probability of the behavior being repeated. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What might be an example of an unconditioned response (UCR) during classical conditioning?

<p>The freezing response in a rat to a loud noise. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process involves a learner's behavior actively influencing the outcome of the conditioning?

<p>Instrumental conditioning (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What response does a rat display when encountering a painful shock in a CS-US pairing?

<p>It exhibits a freezing response. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one primary function of the cerebellum in relation to learned responses?

<p>It impairs responses that require precise timing. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following types of memory is typically greatly affected by interruption during rehearsal?

<p>Short-term memory (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Donald Hebb propose regarding short-term and long-term memory?

<p>The brain consolidates short-term memories into long-term memories over time. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does the formation of new neurons in the hippocampus have on old memories?

<p>It weakens old memories. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a notable characteristic of long-term memory compared to short-term memory?

<p>It can be reconstructed with cues even after years. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do guinea pigs differ from mice and humans regarding memory retention?

<p>Guinea pigs do not rapidly form new hippocampal neurons. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term did A.D. Baddeley and G.J. Hitch introduce to refine the concept of short-term memory?

<p>Working memory (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was observed in infant mice when the formation of new neurons was chemically interfered with?

<p>Impaired both learning and forgetting. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process helps in stabilizing memories that were weak when they were first formed?

<p>Synaptic tag-and-capture (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a plausible explanation for infant amnesia?

<p>Rapid learning in early childhood displaces memories formed in infancy. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a key flaw identified in the original understanding of memory consolidation?

<p>Consolidation always takes a fixed amount of time. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the effect of procedures that increased the formation of new neurons in rats?

<p>Increased rates of forgetting. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory involves recalling details surrounding an emotional or significant event?

<p>Flashbulb memory (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes the role of the locus coeruleus in memory?

<p>It facilitates norepinephrine release during emotional experiences. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the brain perform the delayed response task in testing working memory?

<p>By persisting visual cortex activity for memory recall. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common misconception regarding short-term memories?

<p>They are always transferred to long-term storage. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic differentiates flashbulb memories from ordinary memories?

<p>They are associated with highly emotional events. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factor influences the time it takes to form a long-term memory?

<p>The emotional arousal associated with the event. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of a reinforcer in behavior?

<p>To increase the future probability of a response (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes instrumental conditioning from classical conditioning?

<p>In instrumental conditioning, the individual’s response affects the outcome (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of learning does a songbird demonstrate when it imitates its species' song without reinforcers or punishments?

<p>Associative learning (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens when a taste is associated with illness despite a time delay between the two?

<p>Taste aversion may develop (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What hypothesis did Pavlov propose regarding classical conditioning?

<p>There is a strengthened connection between the CS and UCS centers in the brain (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Karl Lashley's experiments primarily demonstrate about learning?

<p>All parts of the cortex are equally involved in learning (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Lashley’s principle of 'mass action' regarding brain function?

<p>More brain cortex contributes to improved learning (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What limitation in Lashley's conclusions did later researchers identify?

<p>The cerebral cortex is not critical for all learning tasks (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did Pavlov’s initial hypothesis fail to explain all behavioral observations?

<p>Animal responses did not align with expectations (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term refers to the physical representation of learned behavior that Lashley sought in his experiments?

<p>Engram (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the conditioned response prepare an individual for in learning?

<p>An unconditioned response (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant finding from Lashley's cuts to the cerebral cortex in rats?

<p>Learning is not constrained by cerebral connections (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which principle states that damage to the cortex affects learning capabilities based on the extent of the damage?

<p>Mass Action (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary focus of Thompson and colleagues' research regarding classical conditioning?

<p>The location of learning in the cerebellum (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which brain area did Thompson identify as essential for learning in rabbits during the classical conditioning task?

<p>Lateral interpositus nucleus (LIP) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect did temporarily suppressing the lateral interpositus nucleus have on the rabbits?

<p>No responses were shown during conditioning training (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What conclusion did Thompson and colleagues draw about the role of the red nucleus during classical conditioning?

<p>Learning did not require the red nucleus to function (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which method was NOT used to temporarily suppress the lateral interpositus nucleus?

<p>Electrically stimulating the nucleus (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is the sequence of brain areas important in the study of learning and responses?

<p>It illustrates the direct relationship between sensory input and motor output (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon was observed when the red nucleus activity recovered after suppression?

<p>Rabbits exhibited immediate strong learned responses (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about learning if the LIP is suppressed during training?

<p>Learning does not take place until LIP activity recovers (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Individuals with cerebellum damage exhibit which of the following conditions?

<p>Weak, inaccurately timed conditioned responses (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the researchers confirm learning occurs in the LIP rather than another area?

<p>Suppression of other areas did not inhibit learning (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the response of the rabbits during the untrained phase after LIP suppression?

<p>They exhibited no responses during training (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the puff of air in the conditioning task?

<p>It serves as the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What function do cells in the prefrontal and parietal cortex serve during a delay in working memory tasks?

<p>They increase their activity based on upcoming eye movements. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'engram' refer to in the context of this study?

<p>The physical location of memory in the brain (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is it necessary for the visual system to code a simplified account of information in working memory?

<p>To prevent interference with perceiving new information. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was one objective of Thompson’s research related to classical conditioning?

<p>To determine the cellular responses involved in learning (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one hypothesis for why we have evolved genes that increase forgetting?

<p>To filter out outdated information to make space for new. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition is directly associated with 'brain fog' experienced by many patients post-COVID-19 or cancer treatments?

<p>Shrinkage of gray matter in the cerebral cortex. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In patients with Alzheimer’s disease, what aspect of memory is notably retained despite their condition?

<p>Procedural skills and tasks. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant factor that increases the prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease with age?

<p>Genetic predisposition, especially in individuals with Down syndrome. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What common symptom is associated with severe memory loss in Alzheimer’s patients?

<p>Confusion regarding short-term tasks. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one common characteristic observed in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease?

<p>Shrunken gyri and enlarged ventricles. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the brain handle the consolidation of information during working memory tasks?

<p>Information is echoed among neighboring cells. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following represents a type of amnesia limited to specific aspects of memory?

<p>Loss of the ability to recognize recently seen objects. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What could potentially be a consequence of the COVID-19 virus on the brain's functionality?

<p>Impaired blood flow resulting in cognitive issues. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which protein is associated with chromosome 21 and plays a role in Alzheimer's disease?

<p>Apolipoprotein E (APOE) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do thalamus and cortex interactions play during working memory tasks?

<p>They maintain a reverberating circuit that holds information. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What behavioral phenomenon can be associated with a patient performing a learned skill without memory of the prior training?

<p>Procedural memory retention. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the increased risk factor for developing Alzheimer’s disease for individuals with one copy of the APOE4 gene?

<p>Four times the normal risk (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What indicates a high risk of developing early-onset Alzheimer’s disease?

<p>Presence of at least two specific genes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which lifestyle factor is linked to an increased risk of Alzheimer’s disease?

<p>Sleep deprivation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the accumulation of β-amyloid and tau proteins in neurons lead to?

<p>Development of plaques and tangles (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a major limitation of current Alzheimer’s drugs targeting β-amyloid?

<p>The damage may be too extensive by diagnosis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which brain region is most affected by Alzheimer’s disease as indicated by the case studies?

<p>Prefrontal cortex (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do levels of tau protein correlate with Alzheimer’s disease?

<p>They correlate better with cell damage than β-amyloid (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common characteristic of the neuronal structure in Alzheimer's disease?

<p>Decreased branching and shortening of neurons (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon does infant amnesia describe?

<p>The inability of adults to recall early childhood memories (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which theory was proposed by Sigmund Freud as an explanation for infant amnesia?

<p>Repression due to traumatic events (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors does NOT contribute to the risk of Alzheimer’s disease?

<p>High insulin activity in the brain (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does research suggest about embryonic memory retention in species other than humans?

<p>Rats have learning retention for days but soon forget (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a current challenge faced by pharmaceutical companies in developing Alzheimer's treatments?

<p>High costs with uncertain benefits (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does insulin activity play in relation to Alzheimer’s disease?

<p>It is crucial for memory storage (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of correlation is seen between tau levels and Alzheimer’s disease severity?

<p>Positive correlation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning where pairing two stimuli changes the response to one of them.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A stimulus that initially doesn't elicit a response but, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, does.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that automatically triggers a response.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

The automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus.

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Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned response to a conditioned stimulus.

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Instrumental Conditioning

A type of learning where a response leads to a reinforcer or punishment.

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Reinforcer

A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior.

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Punishment

A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

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Conditioned Response

A learned response following a conditioned stimulus.

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Engram

The physical representation of something learned in the brain.

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Equipotentiality

All parts of the cortex contribute equally to a complex behavior like learning.

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Mass Action

More cortex is better for complex behavior (learning).

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Lashley's Search

Investigating the physical location of learned responses in the brain.

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Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer of the brain, responsible for higher processes (learning).

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CS

Conditioned Stimulus – learned signal associating with outcome.

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UCS

Unconditioned Stimulus – triggers natural response.

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UCR

Unconditioned Response – natural response to UCS.

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Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.

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Maze Learning

Learning a path through a maze.

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Hippocampus & Neuron Formation

In young mice and humans, the hippocampus rapidly creates new neurons, replacing old ones. This process aids in learning but weakens older memories.

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Infant Amnesia

The difficulty in remembering events from early childhood. It's thought to be caused by the rapid neuron formation in the hippocampus which displaces memories.

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Guinea Pig Neurons

Guinea pigs, unlike mice and humans, do not have rapid neuron formation in the hippocampus. This is why they tend to retain early memories.

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Neural Formation & Learning

Interfering with new neuron formation in infant mice impairs their learning and forgetting abilities.

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Neuron Formation & Forgetting

Procedures that increase neuron production in the hippocampus can actually enhance forgetting in rats.

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Eyeblink Conditioning

A form of classical conditioning where a neutral stimulus (tone) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (air puff) to elicit a conditioned response (eyeblink).

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Lateral Interpositus Nucleus (LIP)

A nucleus in the cerebellum that is crucial for learning in eyeblink conditioning.

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Red Nucleus

A midbrain motor area that receives input from the cerebellum, involved in motor control.

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Temporarily Suppressing an Area

Inhibiting or silencing the activity of a specific brain area for a short period.

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What happened when the LIP was suppressed?

Suppressing the LIP during training prevented learning, indicating that the LIP is necessary for forming this type of memory.

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What happened when the red nucleus was suppressed?

Suppressing the red nucleus during training did not prevent learning, indicating that the red nucleus is not essential for forming this type of memory.

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What does this evidence suggest about the location of the engram for eyeblink conditioning?

The research suggests that the engram for eyeblink conditioning is located in the LIP, not in the red nucleus or any area after it.

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How did Thompson and his colleagues rule out the possibility that the engram might be in an area before the LIP?

If the engram were in an area preceding the LIP, then suppressing the LIP would not have prevented learning. Since suppressing the LIP did prevent learning, it suggests the engram is not located in an area before the LIP.

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What are the implications of this research for our understanding of learning?

This research provides strong evidence that specific brain areas are involved in forming specific memories, suggesting that engrams are not generalized but localized to specific areas of the brain.

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How does this research apply to humans?

People with cerebellar damage show deficits in conditioned eyeblinks, supporting the idea that the cerebellum plays a crucial role in this type of learning across species.

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What does this research suggest about the nature of learning?

This research suggests that learning is a complex process involving specific neural circuits and pathways, and that different types of learning may involve different brain areas.

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What are the limitations of this research?

This research focuses on a specific type of learning – eyeblink conditioning. It is unclear if similar localization of engrams applies to all types of learning.

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What further research is needed?

Future research could investigate the specific neurons and neurotransmitters involved in the LIP during eyeblink conditioning to gain a more detailed understanding of the underlying mechanisms.

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Working Memory

The system that holds information actively in mind for a short period, such as when you're remembering a phone number or directions.

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Prefrontal Cortex

The front part of the frontal lobe involved in planning, decision-making, and working memory.

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Parietal Cortex

The region involved in spatial processing, attention, and working memory.

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Reverberating Circuit

A network of neurons that continually activate each other, maintaining information in working memory.

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Thalamus

A brain structure relaying sensory information to the cortex.

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Simplified Representation

Working memory doesn't store perfect copies of information, but rather a summarized version.

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Forgetting (Adaptive)

Forgetfulness can be beneficial by discarding outdated information and focusing on essential details.

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Brain Fog

Cognitive impairment marked by forgetfulness, confusion, and slow thinking often experienced after illnesses like COVID-19.

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Microglia

Immune cells in the brain that can damage neurons, contributing to brain fog.

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Alzheimer's Disease

A neurodegenerative disease causing progressive memory loss, confusion, and other cognitive decline.

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Down Syndrome

A genetic condition linked to Alzheimer's, due to an extra copy of chromosome 21.

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APOE Gene

A gene on chromosome 21 involved in lipid metabolism and blood-brain barrier function, linked to Alzheimer's.

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Procedural Skills vs. Facts

Alzheimer's patients often struggle with remembering facts, but retain skills learned before the onset of the disease.

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Brain Atrophy

Shrinking of brain tissue, a characteristic feature of Alzheimer's disease.

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Early-Onset Alzheimer's

Alzheimer's disease that appears before the age of 60. It is strongly influenced by genetics.

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Late-Onset Alzheimer's

Alzheimer's disease that typically appears after the age of 60. It is influenced by a complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors.

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Genetic Loci

Specific locations on chromosomes that are associated with particular traits or diseases.

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Risk Factors for Alzheimer's

Factors that increase the likelihood of developing Alzheimer's. These include genetics, sleep deprivation, excessive salt intake, lack of exercise, and type 2 diabetes.

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Beta-Amyloid

A protein that accumulates in the brain, contributing to the formation of plaques and potentially causing Alzheimer's.

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Tau Protein

A protein that forms tangles within neurons, disrupting their function and contributing to Alzheimer's.

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Plaques

Clumps of beta-amyloid that form in the brain, disrupting the communication between neurons.

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Tangles

Twisted bundles of tau protein inside neurons, disrupting their function and contributing to Alzheimer's.

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Episodic Memories

Memories of specific events, places, and times.

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Freud's Explanation for Infant Amnesia

Freud proposed that early memories are repressed because of their association with sexual conflicts. However, this idea is not widely accepted today.

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Current Theories for Infant Amnesia

Current explanations focus on developmental changes in the brain, such as the development of language, self-awareness, and cognitive abilities.

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Infant Amnesia in Animals

The inability to recall memories from early life has been observed in rats and other species, indicating that it is a broader phenomenon than just a human experience.

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Cerebellum & Timing

The cerebellum plays a crucial role in coordinating movements with precise timing. Damage to this area affects learned responses that require accurate timing.

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Engram for Everyday Memories

Finding the physical representation of everyday memories in the brain is harder than finding the engram for simple learned responses.

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Short-Term vs. Long-Term Memory

Short-term memory holds information briefly while long-term memory stores information for extended periods.

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Short-Term Memory Capacity

Short-term memory has limited capacity. We can typically hold around seven unrelated items in mind at once.

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Rehearsal for Short-Term Memory

Short-term memories fade quickly without repetition or rehearsal.

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Consolidation of Memory

The process of converting short-term memories into long-term memories, often involving structural changes in the brain.

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Delayed Response Task

A test of working memory where you respond to a stimulus after a brief delay.

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Synaptic Tag-and-Capture

Weak memories can be strengthened by associating them with a strong, more important memory.

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Flashbulb Memories

Vivid, detailed memories of highly emotionally charged events.

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Locus Coeruleus & Memory

The locus coeruleus releases norepinephrine, which enhances memory consolidation, especially for emotional experiences.

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Amygdala & Hippocampus in Emotional Memory

The amygdala and hippocampus are involved in processing emotional experiences and creating memories.

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Memory Variability

The time needed to form a memory varies greatly, depending on factors like emotional arousal.

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Working Memory & Visual Cortex

If you need to remember a visual stimulus for a later response, activity in the visual cortex persists.

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Forgetting as Adaptive

While some forgetting can be problematic, it can also help us prioritize and discard less relevant information.

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Study Notes

Localized Representations of Memory

  • Two main categories of learning are classical and instrumental conditioning.
  • Classical conditioning, pioneered by Ivan Pavlov, involves pairing two stimuli to change the response to one of them.
  • In classical conditioning, a conditioned stimulus (CS) is initially neutral, while an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) automatically triggers an unconditioned response (UCR).
  • Repeated pairings of the CS and UCS create a conditioned response (CR) to the formerly neutral CS.
  • The CR often resembles the UCR, but not always.
  • Instrumental conditioning (operant conditioning) involves a response leading to a reinforcer or punishment.
  • Reinforcers increase the response's probability while punishments suppress it.
  • The key difference is that instrumental conditioning's outcome depends on the individual's response, unlike classical conditioning.

Lashley's Search for the Engram

  • Lashley sought the engram, the physical representation of learning, in the brain.
  • He hypothesized that learning involved connections between brain areas.
  • Lashley's experiments involved creating cuts in rat brains during maze learning and brightness discrimination tasks.
  • Contrary to his initial hypothesis, no particular cuts interfered with the rats' learned performance.
  • This suggests that certain learning types don't rely on connections across the cortex.
  • Lashley also tested if specific parts of the cortex are more important.
  • He found performance impairment related to cortical damage amount, not location.
  • Lashley proposed equipotentiality (all cortical parts contribute equally) and mass action (more cortex is better).

The Modern Search for the Engram

  • Thompson and colleagues investigated classical conditioning of eyelid responses in rabbits.
  • They used a simpler task and focused on the cerebellum.
  • They aimed to identify the brain area involved in learning by progressively inactivating brain regions.
  • The lateral interpositus nucleus (LIP) of the cerebellum was essential for learning, showing heightened responses during conditioning.
  • Suppressing this nucleus prevented learning, indicating its crucial role.
  • The red nucleus, receiving input from the cerebellum, was suppressed to further pinpoint the localization of learning.
  • Suppression prevented responses but not learning, proving that learning occurred in the LIP.

Types of Memory

  • Short-term memory (STM) holds recently experienced events. Long-term memory (LTM) stores experiences from further back.
  • STM is limited in capacity (approximately seven items).
  • STM requires rehearsal, while LTM recall can be triggered by cues.
  • STM is lost if not maintained. LTM allows reconstitution by hints.
  • Hebb proposed reverberating circuits for STM, suggesting that repeated recall can consolidate STM into LTM through synapse or structural changes.
  • STM-to-LTM consolidation isn't always linear.

Flashbulb Memories

  • Flashbulb memories form from highly emotional experiences, leaving vivid recollections of events before, after, and around them.
  • This vividness involves heightened norepinephrine in the cortex and dopamine in the hippocampus and activation of the amygdala and hippocampus by epinephrine and cortisol.

Working Memory

  • Working memory refers to storing and manipulating information.
  • The delayed response task tests working memory, showing persistent activity in the prefrontal and parietal cortices during delays.
  • Visual cortical activity is simplified, storing essentials instead of the entire scene.

Memory Loss

  • Forgetting is often functional, aiding us in replacing outdated information.
  • Amnesia, memory loss, can have various causes, including brain fog that results from conditions like post-COVID or cancer treatment.
  • COVID reaction can cause immune system inflammation and damage neurons.
  • Amnesia can be specific to certain types of memory (e.g., loss of forming new visual memories or the ability to retain and process the entire parts of a question).

Alzheimer's Disease

  • Alzheimer's is a progressive neurodegenerative disease marked by memory loss and other cognitive declines.
  • A link to chromosome 21, in particular APOE gene, has been identified, with APOE4 copies significantly increasing risk.
  • Several other genes contribute to early-onset forms.
  • Late-onset forms involve numerous genetic loci.
  • The disease involves progressive losses of brain cells characterized by elevated β-amyloid and tau protein accumulation in neurons.
  • Accumulation damages cells, causes structures called plaques and interferes with neurotransmission.
  • β-amyloid and tau levels associate with the severity of the damage.

Infant Amnesia

  • Infant amnesia is the universal experience of recalling limited memories from early childhood.
  • Several explanations for infant amnesia exist, including changing neural structures during early childhood.
  • Rapid neuron formation in the hippocampus, replacing old neurons with new ones and thus potentially displacing older early childhood memories, might explain the phenomenon.
  • Species differences in infant amnesia exist.

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Explore the intricacies of classical and instrumental conditioning in this quiz. Learn about key concepts including conditioned and unconditioned stimuli and responses. Test your understanding of how learning is represented in memory through various conditioning methods.

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