Psychology Chapter on Conditioning

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary difference between classical conditioning and instrumental conditioning?

Classical conditioning is based solely on human behaviors, while instrumental conditioning is based on animal behaviors.

Classical conditioning pairs two stimuli, while instrumental conditioning involves behavior controlling the outcome. (correct)

Classical conditioning relies on voluntary responses, while instrumental conditioning relies on involuntary responses.

In classical conditioning, a response is linked to a reinforcer, while in instrumental conditioning, responses are not linked.

In Pavlov's experiment with dogs, what was the conditioned response (CR)?

The salivation of the dog in response to the sound (correct)

The salivation of the dog when food is present

The sound of the metronome

The dog's attempt to escape when food is absent

What does the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) automatically elicit in classical conditioning?

Voluntary behavior

A conditioned response

Learning from the environment

An unconditioned response (correct)

Which of the following best describes the conditioned stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning?

It is presented alongside the unconditioned stimulus to create an association. Signup and view all the answers

In instrumental conditioning, what effect does a reinforcer have on behavior?

It increases the probability of the behavior being repeated. Signup and view all the answers

What might be an example of an unconditioned response (UCR) during classical conditioning?

The freezing response in a rat to a loud noise. Signup and view all the answers

Which process involves a learner's behavior actively influencing the outcome of the conditioning?

Instrumental conditioning Signup and view all the answers

What response does a rat display when encountering a painful shock in a CS-US pairing?

It exhibits a freezing response. Signup and view all the answers

What is one primary function of the cerebellum in relation to learned responses?

It impairs responses that require precise timing. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following types of memory is typically greatly affected by interruption during rehearsal?

Short-term memory Signup and view all the answers

What did Donald Hebb propose regarding short-term and long-term memory?

The brain consolidates short-term memories into long-term memories over time. Signup and view all the answers

What effect does the formation of new neurons in the hippocampus have on old memories?

It weakens old memories. Signup and view all the answers

What is a notable characteristic of long-term memory compared to short-term memory?

It can be reconstructed with cues even after years. Signup and view all the answers

How do guinea pigs differ from mice and humans regarding memory retention?

Guinea pigs do not rapidly form new hippocampal neurons. Signup and view all the answers

Which term did A.D. Baddeley and G.J. Hitch introduce to refine the concept of short-term memory?

Working memory Signup and view all the answers

What was observed in infant mice when the formation of new neurons was chemically interfered with?

Impaired both learning and forgetting. Signup and view all the answers

Which process helps in stabilizing memories that were weak when they were first formed?

Synaptic tag-and-capture Signup and view all the answers

What is a plausible explanation for infant amnesia?

Rapid learning in early childhood displaces memories formed in infancy. Signup and view all the answers

What was a key flaw identified in the original understanding of memory consolidation?

Consolidation always takes a fixed amount of time. Signup and view all the answers

What was the effect of procedures that increased the formation of new neurons in rats?

Increased rates of forgetting. Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory involves recalling details surrounding an emotional or significant event?

Flashbulb memory Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes the role of the locus coeruleus in memory?

It facilitates norepinephrine release during emotional experiences. Signup and view all the answers

How does the brain perform the delayed response task in testing working memory?

By persisting visual cortex activity for memory recall. Signup and view all the answers

What is a common misconception regarding short-term memories?

They are always transferred to long-term storage. Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic differentiates flashbulb memories from ordinary memories?

They are associated with highly emotional events. Signup and view all the answers

What factor influences the time it takes to form a long-term memory?

The emotional arousal associated with the event. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of a reinforcer in behavior?

To increase the future probability of a response Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes instrumental conditioning from classical conditioning?

In instrumental conditioning, the individual’s response affects the outcome Signup and view all the answers

What type of learning does a songbird demonstrate when it imitates its species' song without reinforcers or punishments?

Associative learning Signup and view all the answers

What happens when a taste is associated with illness despite a time delay between the two?

Taste aversion may develop Signup and view all the answers

What hypothesis did Pavlov propose regarding classical conditioning?

There is a strengthened connection between the CS and UCS centers in the brain Signup and view all the answers

What did Karl Lashley's experiments primarily demonstrate about learning?

All parts of the cortex are equally involved in learning Signup and view all the answers

What is Lashley’s principle of 'mass action' regarding brain function?

More brain cortex contributes to improved learning Signup and view all the answers

What limitation in Lashley's conclusions did later researchers identify?

The cerebral cortex is not critical for all learning tasks Signup and view all the answers

How did Pavlov’s initial hypothesis fail to explain all behavioral observations?

Animal responses did not align with expectations Signup and view all the answers

What term refers to the physical representation of learned behavior that Lashley sought in his experiments?

Engram Signup and view all the answers

What does the conditioned response prepare an individual for in learning?

An unconditioned response Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant finding from Lashley's cuts to the cerebral cortex in rats?

Learning is not constrained by cerebral connections Signup and view all the answers

Which principle states that damage to the cortex affects learning capabilities based on the extent of the damage?

Mass Action Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary focus of Thompson and colleagues' research regarding classical conditioning?

The location of learning in the cerebellum Signup and view all the answers

Which brain area did Thompson identify as essential for learning in rabbits during the classical conditioning task?

Lateral interpositus nucleus (LIP) Signup and view all the answers

What effect did temporarily suppressing the lateral interpositus nucleus have on the rabbits?

No responses were shown during conditioning training Signup and view all the answers

What conclusion did Thompson and colleagues draw about the role of the red nucleus during classical conditioning?

Learning did not require the red nucleus to function Signup and view all the answers

Which method was NOT used to temporarily suppress the lateral interpositus nucleus?

Electrically stimulating the nucleus Signup and view all the answers

Why is the sequence of brain areas important in the study of learning and responses?

It illustrates the direct relationship between sensory input and motor output Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon was observed when the red nucleus activity recovered after suppression?

Rabbits exhibited immediate strong learned responses Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about learning if the LIP is suppressed during training?

Learning does not take place until LIP activity recovers Signup and view all the answers

Individuals with cerebellum damage exhibit which of the following conditions?

Weak, inaccurately timed conditioned responses Signup and view all the answers

How did the researchers confirm learning occurs in the LIP rather than another area?

Suppression of other areas did not inhibit learning Signup and view all the answers

What was the response of the rabbits during the untrained phase after LIP suppression?

They exhibited no responses during training Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the puff of air in the conditioning task?

It serves as the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Signup and view all the answers

What function do cells in the prefrontal and parietal cortex serve during a delay in working memory tasks?

They increase their activity based on upcoming eye movements. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'engram' refer to in the context of this study?

The physical location of memory in the brain Signup and view all the answers

Why is it necessary for the visual system to code a simplified account of information in working memory?

To prevent interference with perceiving new information. Signup and view all the answers

What was one objective of Thompson’s research related to classical conditioning?

To determine the cellular responses involved in learning Signup and view all the answers

What is one hypothesis for why we have evolved genes that increase forgetting?

To filter out outdated information to make space for new. Signup and view all the answers

Which condition is directly associated with 'brain fog' experienced by many patients post-COVID-19 or cancer treatments?

Shrinkage of gray matter in the cerebral cortex. Signup and view all the answers

In patients with Alzheimer’s disease, what aspect of memory is notably retained despite their condition?

Procedural skills and tasks. Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant factor that increases the prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease with age?

Genetic predisposition, especially in individuals with Down syndrome. Signup and view all the answers

What common symptom is associated with severe memory loss in Alzheimer’s patients?

Confusion regarding short-term tasks. Signup and view all the answers

What is one common characteristic observed in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease?

Shrunken gyri and enlarged ventricles. Signup and view all the answers

How does the brain handle the consolidation of information during working memory tasks?

Information is echoed among neighboring cells. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following represents a type of amnesia limited to specific aspects of memory?

Loss of the ability to recognize recently seen objects. Signup and view all the answers

What could potentially be a consequence of the COVID-19 virus on the brain's functionality?

Impaired blood flow resulting in cognitive issues. Signup and view all the answers

Which protein is associated with chromosome 21 and plays a role in Alzheimer's disease?

Apolipoprotein E (APOE) Signup and view all the answers

What role do thalamus and cortex interactions play during working memory tasks?

They maintain a reverberating circuit that holds information. Signup and view all the answers

What behavioral phenomenon can be associated with a patient performing a learned skill without memory of the prior training?

Procedural memory retention. Signup and view all the answers

What is the increased risk factor for developing Alzheimer’s disease for individuals with one copy of the APOE4 gene?

Four times the normal risk Signup and view all the answers

What indicates a high risk of developing early-onset Alzheimer’s disease?

Presence of at least two specific genes Signup and view all the answers

Which lifestyle factor is linked to an increased risk of Alzheimer’s disease?

Sleep deprivation Signup and view all the answers

What does the accumulation of β-amyloid and tau proteins in neurons lead to?

Development of plaques and tangles Signup and view all the answers

What is a major limitation of current Alzheimer’s drugs targeting β-amyloid?

The damage may be too extensive by diagnosis Signup and view all the answers

Which brain region is most affected by Alzheimer’s disease as indicated by the case studies?

Prefrontal cortex Signup and view all the answers

How do levels of tau protein correlate with Alzheimer’s disease?

They correlate better with cell damage than β-amyloid Signup and view all the answers

What is a common characteristic of the neuronal structure in Alzheimer's disease?

Decreased branching and shortening of neurons Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon does infant amnesia describe?

The inability of adults to recall early childhood memories Signup and view all the answers

Which theory was proposed by Sigmund Freud as an explanation for infant amnesia?

Repression due to traumatic events Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors does NOT contribute to the risk of Alzheimer’s disease?

High insulin activity in the brain Signup and view all the answers

What does research suggest about embryonic memory retention in species other than humans?

Rats have learning retention for days but soon forget Signup and view all the answers

What is a current challenge faced by pharmaceutical companies in developing Alzheimer's treatments?

High costs with uncertain benefits Signup and view all the answers

What role does insulin activity play in relation to Alzheimer’s disease?

It is crucial for memory storage Signup and view all the answers

What type of correlation is seen between tau levels and Alzheimer’s disease severity?

Positive correlation Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Localized Representations of Memory

Two main categories of learning are classical and instrumental conditioning.
Classical conditioning, pioneered by Ivan Pavlov, involves pairing two stimuli to change the response to one of them.
In classical conditioning, a conditioned stimulus (CS) is initially neutral, while an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) automatically triggers an unconditioned response (UCR).
Repeated pairings of the CS and UCS create a conditioned response (CR) to the formerly neutral CS.
The CR often resembles the UCR, but not always.
Instrumental conditioning (operant conditioning) involves a response leading to a reinforcer or punishment.
Reinforcers increase the response's probability while punishments suppress it.
The key difference is that instrumental conditioning's outcome depends on the individual's response, unlike classical conditioning.

Lashley's Search for the Engram

Lashley sought the engram, the physical representation of learning, in the brain.
He hypothesized that learning involved connections between brain areas.
Lashley's experiments involved creating cuts in rat brains during maze learning and brightness discrimination tasks.
Contrary to his initial hypothesis, no particular cuts interfered with the rats' learned performance.
This suggests that certain learning types don't rely on connections across the cortex.
Lashley also tested if specific parts of the cortex are more important.
He found performance impairment related to cortical damage amount, not location.
Lashley proposed equipotentiality (all cortical parts contribute equally) and mass action (more cortex is better).

The Modern Search for the Engram

Thompson and colleagues investigated classical conditioning of eyelid responses in rabbits.
They used a simpler task and focused on the cerebellum.
They aimed to identify the brain area involved in learning by progressively inactivating brain regions.
The lateral interpositus nucleus (LIP) of the cerebellum was essential for learning, showing heightened responses during conditioning.
Suppressing this nucleus prevented learning, indicating its crucial role.
The red nucleus, receiving input from the cerebellum, was suppressed to further pinpoint the localization of learning.
Suppression prevented responses but not learning, proving that learning occurred in the LIP.

Types of Memory

Short-term memory (STM) holds recently experienced events. Long-term memory (LTM) stores experiences from further back.
STM is limited in capacity (approximately seven items).
STM requires rehearsal, while LTM recall can be triggered by cues.
STM is lost if not maintained. LTM allows reconstitution by hints.
Hebb proposed reverberating circuits for STM, suggesting that repeated recall can consolidate STM into LTM through synapse or structural changes.
STM-to-LTM consolidation isn't always linear.

Flashbulb Memories

Flashbulb memories form from highly emotional experiences, leaving vivid recollections of events before, after, and around them.
This vividness involves heightened norepinephrine in the cortex and dopamine in the hippocampus and activation of the amygdala and hippocampus by epinephrine and cortisol.

Working Memory

Working memory refers to storing and manipulating information.
The delayed response task tests working memory, showing persistent activity in the prefrontal and parietal cortices during delays.
Visual cortical activity is simplified, storing essentials instead of the entire scene.

Memory Loss

Forgetting is often functional, aiding us in replacing outdated information.
Amnesia, memory loss, can have various causes, including brain fog that results from conditions like post-COVID or cancer treatment.
COVID reaction can cause immune system inflammation and damage neurons.
Amnesia can be specific to certain types of memory (e.g., loss of forming new visual memories or the ability to retain and process the entire parts of a question).

Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's is a progressive neurodegenerative disease marked by memory loss and other cognitive declines.
A link to chromosome 21, in particular APOE gene, has been identified, with APOE4 copies significantly increasing risk.
Several other genes contribute to early-onset forms.
Late-onset forms involve numerous genetic loci.
The disease involves progressive losses of brain cells characterized by elevated β-amyloid and tau protein accumulation in neurons.
Accumulation damages cells, causes structures called plaques and interferes with neurotransmission.
β-amyloid and tau levels associate with the severity of the damage.

Infant Amnesia

Infant amnesia is the universal experience of recalling limited memories from early childhood.
Several explanations for infant amnesia exist, including changing neural structures during early childhood.
Rapid neuron formation in the hippocampus, replacing old neurons with new ones and thus potentially displacing older early childhood memories, might explain the phenomenon.
Species differences in infant amnesia exist.

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Description

Explore the intricacies of classical and instrumental conditioning in this quiz. Learn about key concepts including conditioned and unconditioned stimuli and responses. Test your understanding of how learning is represented in memory through various conditioning methods.