Psychology Chapter on Attitudes and Heuristics

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Questions and Answers

What are the three components of attitudes represented by C, A, B?

Causative, Affective, Biographical

Causative, Aesthetic, Behavioral

Cognitive, Affective, Behavioral (correct)

Cognitive, Affective, Biographical

Which statement about explicit attitudes is correct?

They cannot be expressed to others.

They are automatically generated and subconscious.

They are primarily based on hunches and instincts.

They are consciously endorsed and in our awareness. (correct)

What is a key characteristic of implicit attitudes?

They are less accessible to conscious awareness. (correct)

They can be easily controlled.

They are always aligned with explicit attitudes.

They are easy to introspect on.

What aspect of the Implicit Attitudes Test (ITA) is mentioned as having low validity?

It may measure conditioned thoughts instead of current attitudes. Signup and view all the answers

Why might results from the ITA vary for bilingual individuals?

Results depend on the individual's dominant language. Signup and view all the answers

What did Gawronski's 2019 study investigate about individuals' awareness of their attitudes?

The ability of people to access their own implicit attitudes. Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary reason for the low correlation between implicit and explicit attitudes?

Motivation and opportunity significantly influence attitudes. Signup and view all the answers

How are implicit attitudes typically measured?

Reaction times and responses to associations. Signup and view all the answers

How does Bandura's social learning theory explain the acquisition of new behaviors?

New behaviors are acquired through observation and imitation of others. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of a neutral stimulus in classical conditioning according to the principles of attitude formation?

It eventually elicits an emotional response by itself after being paired consistently. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes how operant conditioning influences attitudes?

Positive reinforcement enhances the frequency of behaviors, impacting attitudes. Signup and view all the answers

According to the principles of exposure, what happens when someone is repeatedly exposed to a novel stimulus?

Their initial fear will likely diminish while interest may increase. Signup and view all the answers

What conclusion did Zajonc (1968) draw from his study on foreign word exposure?

Increased exposure to a foreign word correlates with positive emotional associations. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of schemas in cognitive processing?

To reduce cognitive load and save time Signup and view all the answers

Representative heuristics primarily rely on which of the following?

The similarity to existing mental categories Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best describes availability heuristics?

They lead individuals to judge events based on how easily examples come to mind. Signup and view all the answers

What is an illusory correlation?

A belief in a false association between two unrelated events Signup and view all the answers

How do schemas influence our expectations about behavior?

They shape beliefs about how we expect things to behave. Signup and view all the answers

What was a finding of Schwarz et al. (1991) regarding recall and belief?

More examples lead to a stronger belief in the truth of the information. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement reflects a common misconception regarding heuristics?

Heuristics always lead to accurate decision-making. Signup and view all the answers

What can lead individuals to incorrect conclusions when using representative heuristics?

Similarity to an existing category in their mind Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary characteristic of a cognitive miser?

Uses limited cognitive resources to solve problems Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the approach of a naïve scientist?

Analyzes information carefully before making decisions Signup and view all the answers

Which factor influences whether a person adopts the cognitive miser or naïve scientist approach when thinking?

The importance of the decision being made Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of self-serving bias?

Assigning personal successes to one's own abilities Signup and view all the answers

What does the actor-observer bias lead individuals to do?

Blame external situations for their own mistakes Signup and view all the answers

What underlying belief is attributed to the Attribution Theory?

We need to know why events occur to feel in control Signup and view all the answers

Which cognitive strategy is a cognitive miser most likely to employ?

Heuristics to make quick, less effortful decisions Signup and view all the answers

How does the self-serving bias manifest in decision-making?

Good outcomes are attributed to personal effort, and bad outcomes to external factors Signup and view all the answers

What is cognitive dissonance primarily caused by?

Holding two or more inconsistent cognitions Signup and view all the answers

How can individuals reduce feelings of cognitive dissonance?

By changing either their behavior or cognition Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the desirability of a chosen option after making a difficult decision?

It increases in desirability Signup and view all the answers

What type of theories explain how we infer our attitudes and feelings?

Self-perception theories Signup and view all the answers

In the context of cognitive dissonance, how do people often justify voting for a candidate they do not fully support?

By changing their perceptions of the candidate Signup and view all the answers

What does Brehm's 1956 study indicate about post-decision behavior?

People enhance the value of their chosen option Signup and view all the answers

According to the information provided, which of the following behaviors can strengthen cognitions?

Cheating on an exam and rationalizing it Signup and view all the answers

What pressure do individuals face when experiencing cognitive dissonance?

To reduce the discomfort created by conflicting cognitions Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Attitudes

Attitudes are evaluations of people, objects, and ideas.
They consist of three components: cognitive, affective, and behavioral.
Explicit attitudes are consciously endorsed and controlled, while implicit attitudes are less accessible, harder to control, and measured by reaction time.
The Implicit Association Test (IAT) attempts to measure implicit attitudes but has issues with reliability and validity.
Research by Gawronski (2019) suggests that people are aware of their implicit attitudes, but these may differ from their explicit attitudes.

Schema

Schemas are mental representations or blueprints of how we expect things to be.
They help reduce cognitive load and save time, allowing us to go beyond the information given.
Example: A schema for fast food restaurants includes lining up to order.

Heuristics

Heuristics are mental shortcuts or rules of thumb used for decision-making.
They help reduce problem-solving efforts and allow for quick attitude formation.
Two types: Representative heuristics and Availability heuristics.
Representative heuristics: Judging based on similarity to a known category.
Availability heuristics: Judging likelihood based on how easily an event comes to mind.
Schwarz et al. (1991) found that people believe information as more true when it’s easier to recall.
Illusory correlations occur when we perceive a relationship between two things that are not actually related.

Cognitive Miser vs. Naïve Scientist

Cognitive Miser: Conserves cognitive resources, utilizes schemas and heuristics, and makes quick, automatic judgments.
Naïve Scientist: Looks for reasonable explanations, analyzes situations, uses cognitive resources, and makes considered decisions.
The Motivational Tactician Framework explains how we choose between these modes based on factors like time, cognitive resources, and decision importance.

Attribution Theory

Attributions are our beliefs about why things happen.
We make attributions both for our own behavior and others’ behavior.
Actor-Observer Bias: We make external attributions for our own behavior and internal attributions for others' behavior.
Self-Serving Bias: We make attributions that support a positive view of ourselves.

Social Learning Theory: We learn by observing and imitating others.
Classical Conditioning: Pairing a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that elicits an emotional response.
Operant Conditioning: Behaviors rewarded become more frequent, while behaviors punished become less frequent.

Attitudes and Experience

Direct experience and mere exposure can influence attitudes.
Mere exposure effect: Increased liking of things we are repeatedly exposed to.
Olson & Fazio (2001) demonstrated how classical conditioning can change explicit attitudes without awareness.
Direct experience increases perceptual fluency and positive attitudes, but only if the experience is not negative.

Self-Perception Theory

We infer our attitudes and feelings by observing our own behavior.

Cognitive Dissonance

Discomfort experienced when holding inconsistent cognitions.
Occurs when our behavior is inconsistent with our self-conception.
Strategies to reduce dissonance:
- Change behavior to match cognitions.
- Change cognitions to match behavior.
- Add new cognitions to justify behavior.
Research by Brehm (1956) showed that selecting a choice strengthens our positive view of it and decreases our view of the rejected option.
Mills (1958) found that behaviors can strengthen cognitions that led to them.
Aronson & Mills (1959) demonstrated how behavior can change cognitions to justify actions.

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Description

This quiz covers key concepts related to attitudes, schemas, and heuristics in psychology. Explore the components of attitudes, the role of schemas in cognitive processes, and the impact of heuristics on decision-making. Test your understanding of these essential psychological principles.