Psychology Chapter on Attention and Learning

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Questions and Answers

What best describes psychophysics in relation to sensation?

The measurement of emotional responses to physical reactions.

The relationship between psychological events and physical stimuli. (correct)

The study of psychological health disorders.

The analysis of cognitive abilities without sensory input.

Which type of attention is characterized by a reflexive response?

Involuntary attention (correct)

Peripheral attention

Selective attention

Voluntary attention

What is a key characteristic of the limited processing capacity of attention?

It hinders the ability to attend to two demanding tasks at once. (correct)

It allows for simultaneous processing of multiple tasks efficiently.

It exclusively supports visual attention over other types.

It significantly enhances cognitive function when multitasking.

Which of the following is NOT a principle of attention?

Concentrating Signup and view all the answers

What is selective attention driven by?

Personal interest Signup and view all the answers

Which determinant is least likely to influence attention?

Emotional state Signup and view all the answers

Which type of attention involves background sensory awareness?

Peripheral attention Signup and view all the answers

What is a key factor in the filter theory of attention as illustrated by the phrases heard from each ear?

Prioritization of select stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best captures the idea of effective participation in learning?

Learning occurs more effectively when individuals responsibly participate. Signup and view all the answers

What is emphasized as critical for lasting learning?

Self-initiated learning that involves the whole person. Signup and view all the answers

Which criterion is NOT considered essential for good theory-building?

Unusualness Signup and view all the answers

What is NOT a key component of psychology theories?

Explaining external factors impacting behavior Signup and view all the answers

What was the effect on children who observed a model being punished for aggression?

Decreased aggressive behavior Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect is crucial for the adaptability of learning across generations?

Flexibility and adaptability through experience. Signup and view all the answers

Which cognitive process involves learning by observation without immediate imitation?

Vicarious acquisition Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately defines a theory?

A fact-based framework that offers testable concepts. Signup and view all the answers

What does good theory-building research require?

Clearly defined variables and internal consistency. Signup and view all the answers

What influences whether a person performs a behavior they observed?

Reason to perform the behavior Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes learners' expectations about future consequences based on prior experiences?

Response–consequence awareness Signup and view all the answers

What is indicated as a key benefit of theories in learning?

They help find similarities across experiences, increasing abstraction. Signup and view all the answers

What effect can the non-occurrence of expected reinforcement have on a learner?

It feels punishing Signup and view all the answers

What is the key process involved in forming memory codes of modeled behavior?

Attention Signup and view all the answers

How does self-efficacy affect a learner's behavior in challenging tasks?

It increases the effort invested Signup and view all the answers

In Bandura's study, what was observed in children who saw a model receiving no consequences for aggressive behavior?

Moderate aggression Signup and view all the answers

How does group success influence collective self-efficacy?

It fosters a belief that the group can achieve goals. Signup and view all the answers

What role does verbal persuasion play in influencing self-efficacy?

It can boost self-confidence through positive feedback. Signup and view all the answers

What psychological state can negatively impact a person's confidence?

Experiencing anxiety unrelated to the specific task. Signup and view all the answers

How can observational learning impact student behavior?

Observing others can teach both appropriate and inappropriate behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

What is an effective way to enhance appropriate behaviors in students?

Describing the consequences of behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

What should teachers do to support students in achieving their academic goals?

Help students set realistic expectations for their accomplishments. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes an issue addressed by Bandura's theory?

It addresses a wide range of psychological aspects. Signup and view all the answers

What is a benefit of self-regulation techniques for students?

They improve student behavior effectively. Signup and view all the answers

What role does metacognition play in learning?

It enhances the ability to think critically about one's learning. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes metacognitive competencies?

Awareness of one's learning strategies and contexts. Signup and view all the answers

How can simultaneous presentations of instances affect memory?

They provide less stress on memory compared to sequential presentations. Signup and view all the answers

What is one prominent component of metacognition as described by Jerome Bruner?

Thinking about one's own thinking. Signup and view all the answers

Why is it important for learners to challenge their self-generated biases?

To develop a better understanding of their task reactions. Signup and view all the answers

What does the process of 'thinking about thinking' involve in educational practices?

Self-regulation and awareness of one's cognitive processes. Signup and view all the answers

How does metacognition contribute to independent learning?

It fosters self-awareness and routine development. Signup and view all the answers

What can be a result of students knowing their strengths and weaknesses in learning?

They are more likely to actively monitor their learning strategies. Signup and view all the answers

What primarily distinguishes learning from changes due to physiological maturation?

Learning results from experience. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes passive learning?

Experiencing consequences after an event. Signup and view all the answers

How does human learning differ from animal learning?

Human learning allows for creativity and adaptability. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor significantly enhances learning according to the content?

Accumulated knowledge and experiences. Signup and view all the answers

What can be said about the capacity for learning in humans?

It is essential for survival and adaptation. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines the impact of the environment on learning?

The environment shapes the knowledge and skills humans acquire. Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of the unique capacity for learning in humans?

Significant advancements in civilization. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement reflects a key aspect of learning?

Learning manifests as a change in behavior. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Lecture 1 (Ruth)

Jerome Bruner: The defining characteristic of humans is their ability to learn, unlike other species whose learning is generational. Humans are born into a culture that conserves and transmits past learning. They have fewer instinctive reflexes than other species to respond to environmental problems and threats. They learn through cumulative learning rather than instinct. Constructivism is an active process where learners build new ideas based on existing knowledge.
Gredler (1997): Learning is a process typically only examined when there's difficulty. It's crucial for individual and societal development.
Thorndike (1931): Humans' ability to learn and change is impressive.
Rogers (1990): Learning and taking risks are important for a rich and life-long experience of learning. Learning from experiences enhances one’s ability to take more risks.
Psychological definition: Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour resulting from experience.

Definitions of Learning

A relatively permanent change in response (Kimble, 1985).
A relatively permanent change in behavior (Feldman, 1990).
Learning is an enduring change in behavior or capacity (Shuell, 1986).
Learning includes values, attitudes, and emotions, not only skills and knowledge.

Learning

Humans have the capacity to learn.
Learning is important for survival.
Learning leads to changes in behaviors and mental associations due to experience.
Humans require learning, teaching, and experience to develop skills.
Humans are more capable of knowledge acquisition and adapting to new environments because of their learned behaviors.
Humans learn in a flexible manner with training.

The Unique Human Capacity for Learning

Humans can learn in a wide range of areas.
This capacity is unmatched in other species.
The growth of civilisation and changing environments influence the range of human knowledge.

Curiosity

Humans have an innate need to understand the world.
Curiosity is a fundamental human trait.
Our early ancestors were curious and explored.
Curiosity often involves learning through experience.

Freedom to Learn (Rogers, 1969)

Principles for facilitating learning:
Humans have natural learning potential.
Relevant learning is when individuals recognize their personal needs for learning.
Learning that challenges self-perception is challenging and may be resisted if external threats aren’t minimalized.
Learning occurs more effectively when individuals can actively participate in the learning process.
Best learning takes place when the learner is responsible.
Learning that lasts is self-initiated and incorporates the whole person.
When self-evaluation is prioritized, learning makes the learner more self-reliant and creative.
Effective learning is also receptive to experiences and the process of change.

Frameworks of Learning

Theories try to explain factors influencing learning and optimize environments.
Theories are fact-based frameworks that describe phenomena.
They present concepts that are based on evidence.
Explanation of human behaviour is backed by evidence and testing that support the theory.
Theory building is essential for analysing and efficiently developing the field.

Psychology Theories

Models provide frameworks for understanding thoughts, emotions, and behaviour.
Describe behaviour and make future predictions concerning the same.

Psychological Models with the Learning Continuum

Learning started being studied in the late 1800s.
Two dominant perspectives were structuralism and functionalism.
Both perspectives lacked precise research methods and relied on introspection.
Behaviourism studied observable behaviours and environmental factors (stimuli and responses).
Constructivism focuses on mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving.
Cognitive psychology is focused on understanding mental processes.
Socio-cultural theory values social interaction, and culture significantly affect learning.
Gestalt psychologists studied perception and problem-solving.

Learning Through Mental Change

Learning often occurs mentally, not just behaviourally.
Humans can learn by observing without immediately imitating.
Motivation affects whether observed behaviour is imitated.

Cognitive Processes in Learning

Attention, mental rehearsal, and memory coding of observed behaviour are key in the learning process.
Learners should recognize the connection between their behaviour and resulting consequences.
Consequences affect the learner’s motivation and future actions based on expectations of outcomes.
Self-efficacy reflects confidence in successfully completing particular tasks.
Confidence affects how much effort learners invest in challenges.
Expected consequences—or lack thereof —can powerfully influence learning behaviour.

Reciprocal Causation

Behaviour, personal factors and environmental conditions interact and influence each other.

Modelling

Infants imitate facial expressions early in life.
Models can be live people, portrayals or instructions.
Effective modelling involves competence, prestige, or both.
Observing consequences of the model’s behaviour directly affects the observer’s behaviour.
Vicarious reinforcement increases or decreases behaviours.

Gender Stereotyping

Behaviour imitation often aligns with traditional gender roles.
Models can challenge traditional gender roles.
Relevance to the observer: Learners imitate behaviour that's similar to themselves or behaviour congruent with their life circumstances.

How Modelling Affects Behaviour

Acquisition of Psychomotor Skills (learning skills through observation, e.g. performing actions).
Cognitive modelling (demonstrates the task and explains the process (learning to perform the task)).
Acquisition of Academic Skills (learning and using skills in class settings, e.g. writing essays or drawing).
Aggression (children who witness aggressive models are more predisposed towards aggression compared to children who do not watch aggressive behaviour).
Interpersonal Behaviours (children learn how to resolve conflicts with peers).

The Impact of Media Models

Positive media models can promote social behaviour (e.g. cooperation, sympathy and sharing), encouraging positive behaviour imitation in children.
Children are more likely to mimic behaviour they’ve witnessed from positive role models in situations they can relate to.

Consistency Between Words and Actions

When actions and words conflict, learners are more likely to imitate the actions rather than the words.

Types of Attention

Voluntary attention - reflex, motivation is a response pattern
Involuntary attention - response pattern
Selective attention - focused attention to stimuli
Habitual attention - repetitive or learned response pattern
Peripheral attention - background/environment input influences

Determinants of Attention

Aspects like size, intensity, novelty, incongruity, and colours affect attention.

Perception:

Perception is the interpretation of stimuli, influenced by prior experiences.
The five senses contribute to our perception of the world. stages of cognition:
Sensation is the reception of stimuli from the outside world.
Selection of stimuli that are important.
Organization of information received.
Interpretation

Motivation:

The internal state that drives us to act.
Includes interest, curiosity, and beliefs.
Different factors influence motivation to learn.
Different types of activities and tasks can be motivated by different factors.

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic: driven by internal factors (enjoyment/importance of task).
Extrinsic: driven by external factors (rewards/avoiding punishment).

Basic Human Needs and Motivation

Drive-reduction theory: people act to maintain physiological balance (e.g., hunger).
Incentives: environmental factors like desirability (e.g., bigger portion of food) influencing motivation.
Arousal and motivation: people have a preference for an optimal level of arousal, neither too low or too high.
Types of Motivation include
Sensation seeking
Maslow's theory of self-actualization involves a hierarchy of needs:
- Basic needs (physiological, safety, love/belonging).
- Growth needs (esteem, self-actualization)

Self-Concept and Self-Efficacy

Self-concept: the overall view of oneself which influences beliefs, behaviors and actions.
Self-efficacy: the capacity to believe that you can, in actuality, execute the goal of any particular task.
High self-efficacy is associated with belief in success despite challenges; and perseverance.
Low self-efficacy contributes to reduced motivation and engagement. Sources of self-efficacy include prior achievements, observing others, and verbal persuasion.
Positive outcomes often strengthen self-efficacy; negative ones diminish it.

Motivation History

18th: Complete self control over behavior.
19th: Darwin proposed that desires precede action.

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Description

This quiz explores key concepts in psychology, focusing on psychophysics, types of attention, and principles of learning. Test your knowledge on the characteristics of attention, the filter theory, and factors that influence learning and theory-building in psychology.