Psychology Chapter on Attention and Learning

Lecture 1 (Ruth)

• Jerome Bruner: The defining characteristic of humans is their ability to learn, unlike other species whose learning is generational. Humans are born into a culture that conserves and transmits past learning. They have fewer instinctive reflexes than other species to respond to environmental problems and threats. They learn through cumulative learning rather than instinct. Constructivism is an active process where learners build new ideas based on existing knowledge.
• Gredler (1997): Learning is a process typically only examined when there's difficulty. It's crucial for individual and societal development.
• Thorndike (1931): Humans' ability to learn and change is impressive.
• Rogers (1990): Learning and taking risks are important for a rich and life-long experience of learning. Learning from experiences enhances one’s ability to take more risks.
• Psychological definition: Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour resulting from experience.

Definitions of Learning

• A relatively permanent change in response (Kimble, 1985).
• A relatively permanent change in behavior (Feldman, 1990).
• Learning is an enduring change in behavior or capacity (Shuell, 1986).
• Learning includes values, attitudes, and emotions, not only skills and knowledge.

Learning

• Humans have the capacity to learn.
• Learning is important for survival.
• Learning leads to changes in behaviors and mental associations due to experience.
• Humans require learning, teaching, and experience to develop skills.
• Humans are more capable of knowledge acquisition and adapting to new environments because of their learned behaviors.
• Humans learn in a flexible manner with training.

The Unique Human Capacity for Learning

• Humans can learn in a wide range of areas.
• This capacity is unmatched in other species.
• The growth of civilisation and changing environments influence the range of human knowledge.

Curiosity

• Humans have an innate need to understand the world.
• Curiosity is a fundamental human trait.
• Our early ancestors were curious and explored.
• Curiosity often involves learning through experience.

Freedom to Learn (Rogers, 1969)

• Principles for facilitating learning:
• Humans have natural learning potential.
• Relevant learning is when individuals recognize their personal needs for learning.
• Learning that challenges self-perception is challenging and may be resisted if external threats aren’t minimalized.
• Learning occurs more effectively when individuals can actively participate in the learning process.
• Best learning takes place when the learner is responsible.
• Learning that lasts is self-initiated and incorporates the whole person.
• When self-evaluation is prioritized, learning makes the learner more self-reliant and creative.
• Effective learning is also receptive to experiences and the process of change.

Frameworks of Learning

• Theories try to explain factors influencing learning and optimize environments.
• Theories are fact-based frameworks that describe phenomena.
• They present concepts that are based on evidence.
• Explanation of human behaviour is backed by evidence and testing that support the theory.
• Theory building is essential for analysing and efficiently developing the field.

Psychology Theories

• Models provide frameworks for understanding thoughts, emotions, and behaviour.
• Describe behaviour and make future predictions concerning the same.

Psychological Models with the Learning Continuum

• Learning started being studied in the late 1800s.
• Two dominant perspectives were structuralism and functionalism.
• Both perspectives lacked precise research methods and relied on introspection.
• Behaviourism studied observable behaviours and environmental factors (stimuli and responses).
• Constructivism focuses on mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving.
• Cognitive psychology is focused on understanding mental processes.
• Socio-cultural theory values social interaction, and culture significantly affect learning.
• Gestalt psychologists studied perception and problem-solving.

Learning Through Mental Change

• Learning often occurs mentally, not just behaviourally.
• Humans can learn by observing without immediately imitating.
• Motivation affects whether observed behaviour is imitated.

Cognitive Processes in Learning

• Attention, mental rehearsal, and memory coding of observed behaviour are key in the learning process.
• Learners should recognize the connection between their behaviour and resulting consequences.
• Consequences affect the learner’s motivation and future actions based on expectations of outcomes.
• Self-efficacy reflects confidence in successfully completing particular tasks.
• Confidence affects how much effort learners invest in challenges.
• Expected consequences—or lack thereof —can powerfully influence learning behaviour.

Reciprocal Causation

• Behaviour, personal factors and environmental conditions interact and influence each other.

Modelling

• Infants imitate facial expressions early in life.
• Models can be live people, portrayals or instructions.
• Effective modelling involves competence, prestige, or both.
• Observing consequences of the model’s behaviour directly affects the observer’s behaviour.
• Vicarious reinforcement increases or decreases behaviours.

Gender Stereotyping

• Behaviour imitation often aligns with traditional gender roles.
• Models can challenge traditional gender roles.
• Relevance to the observer: Learners imitate behaviour that's similar to themselves or behaviour congruent with their life circumstances.

How Modelling Affects Behaviour

• Acquisition of Psychomotor Skills (learning skills through observation, e.g. performing actions).
• Cognitive modelling (demonstrates the task and explains the process (learning to perform the task)).
• Acquisition of Academic Skills (learning and using skills in class settings, e.g. writing essays or drawing).
• Aggression (children who witness aggressive models are more predisposed towards aggression compared to children who do not watch aggressive behaviour).
• Interpersonal Behaviours (children learn how to resolve conflicts with peers).

The Impact of Media Models

• Positive media models can promote social behaviour (e.g. cooperation, sympathy and sharing), encouraging positive behaviour imitation in children.
• Children are more likely to mimic behaviour they’ve witnessed from positive role models in situations they can relate to.

Consistency Between Words and Actions

• When actions and words conflict, learners are more likely to imitate the actions rather than the words.

Types of Attention

• Voluntary attention - reflex, motivation is a response pattern
• Involuntary attention - response pattern
• Selective attention - focused attention to stimuli
• Habitual attention - repetitive or learned response pattern
• Peripheral attention - background/environment input influences

Determinants of Attention

• Aspects like size, intensity, novelty, incongruity, and colours affect attention.

Perception:

• Perception is the interpretation of stimuli, influenced by prior experiences.
• The five senses contribute to our perception of the world. stages of cognition:
• Sensation is the reception of stimuli from the outside world.
• Selection of stimuli that are important.
• Organization of information received.
• Interpretation

Motivation:

• The internal state that drives us to act.
• Includes interest, curiosity, and beliefs.
• Different factors influence motivation to learn.
• Different types of activities and tasks can be motivated by different factors.

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

• Intrinsic: driven by internal factors (enjoyment/importance of task).
• Extrinsic: driven by external factors (rewards/avoiding punishment).

Basic Human Needs and Motivation

• Drive-reduction theory: people act to maintain physiological balance (e.g., hunger).
• Incentives: environmental factors like desirability (e.g., bigger portion of food) influencing motivation.
• Arousal and motivation: people have a preference for an optimal level of arousal, neither too low or too high.
• Types of Motivation include
• Sensation seeking
• Maslow's theory of self-actualization involves a hierarchy of needs:
  • Basic needs (physiological, safety, love/belonging).
  • Growth needs (esteem, self-actualization)

Self-Concept and Self-Efficacy

• Self-concept: the overall view of oneself which influences beliefs, behaviors and actions.
• Self-efficacy: the capacity to believe that you can, in actuality, execute the goal of any particular task.
• High self-efficacy is associated with belief in success despite challenges; and perseverance.
• Low self-efficacy contributes to reduced motivation and engagement. Sources of self-efficacy include prior achievements, observing others, and verbal persuasion.
• Positive outcomes often strengthen self-efficacy; negative ones diminish it.

Motivation History

• 18th: Complete self control over behavior.
• 19th: Darwin proposed that desires precede action.

This quiz explores key concepts in psychology, focusing on psychophysics, types of attention, and principles of learning. Test your knowledge on the characteristics of attention, the filter theory, and factors that influence learning and theory-building in psychology.