Attention Concepts in Psychology

Attention

• Attention is the ability to focus on a particular stimulus while ignoring others.
• Selective attention is the ability to focus on one stimulus while ignoring others.
• Divided attention is the ability to focus on multiple stimuli simultaneously.
• Dichotic Listening is a technique used to study selective attention.
  • In dichotic listening, participants listen to different messages in each ear.
  • Research has shown that participants can only process information from one ear at a time.
  • Research on dichotic listening led to three main theories of attention:
    • Early Filter Theory (Broadbent) suggests that information is filtered out before it is processed.
    • Attenuation Theory (Treisman) suggests that information is attenuated, or weakened, before it is processed.
    • Late Filter Theory (McKay) suggests that all information is processed, but only the relevant information is attended to.

Load Theory Of Attention

• Load Theory of Attention states that our ability to ignore irrelevant information depends on the cognitive load of the task.
  • If a task is easy and has low cognitive load, it is easier to ignore irrelevant information.
  • If a task is difficult and has high cognitive load, it is harder to ignore irrelevant information.
• The Stroop Test is a classic example of the Load Theory.
  • Participants are asked to name the color of ink used to write a word, while ignoring the word itself.
  • The test demonstrates that it is difficult to ignore irrelevant information, especially when the information is related to the task at hand.

Overt & Covert Attention

• Overt attention is a type of attention that is directed by eye movements.
  • Saccade- a rapid movement of the eye from one fixation point to another.
  • Fixation- the pause of the eye on a visual target.
• Covert attention can direct attention to locations in the visual field without moving the eyes.
  • No-look passes in basketball are an example of covert attention.
  • Posner's cueing paradigm is an example of research that has shown that covert attention can both speed up and slow down responses, based on whether the cue was valid or invalid.

Spatial, Object, and Feature-Based Attention

• Spatial attention is the ability to focus on a specific location in space.
• Object-based attention is the ability to focus on a specific object, even if the object is moving.
  • Egly's object-based attention experiment demonstrated that it is easier to attend to a target that shares the same object as a cue, even when the target is farther away from the cue.
• Feature-based attention is the ability to focus on a specific feature, such as color or shape.

Hemispatial Neglect

• Hemispatial neglect is a neurological disorder that occurs when there is damage to the right parietal lobe.
• People with hemispatial neglect have difficulty attending to stimuli in the left visual field.
• They may fail to see objects, read text, or even eat food on the left side of their plates.

Feature Binding and Feature Integration Theory

• Feature binding is the process of combining different features into a single object.
• Feature Integration Theory states that we perceive objects by binding together individual features.
  • When attention is used to combine different features, we understand an object as a whole.
  • When attention is not available, we often see illusory conjunctions: incorrect combinations of features.

Short-term and Working Memory

• Short-term memory is a type of memory that holds a small amount of information for a short period of time.
• Working memory is a type of memory that is used to actively process, manipulate, and store information.

Modal Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin)

• The Modal Model of Memory is a model of memory that describes the three main types of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory Memory

• Sensory Memory is the initial stage of memory, which holds a brief representation of sensory information.
  • Iconic memory is the sensory memory for visual information.
  • Echoic memory is sensory memory for auditory information.

Capacity & Duration of Memory

Short-Term Memory

• Short-term memory holds information for a short period of time, usually around 20-30 seconds.
• This information is easily lost if not rehearsed.
• Capacity of short-term memory is limited, often to 7 +/- 2 items.
  • Chunking can improve the amount of information that can be held in short-term memory.

Baddeley & Hitch Model of Working Memory

• The Baddeley & Hitch model of working memory is a more complex model than the Modal Model.
• This model proposes that working memory has three components:
  • Phonological Loop - processes verbal and auditory information.
  • Visuo-spatial sketchpad - processes visual and spatial information.
  • Central Executive - controls and coordinates the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad.
• Phonological Similarity Effect - we have difficulty remembering lists of words that sound alike.
• Word Length Effect - we have difficulty remembering lists of longer words.
  • Articulatory Suppression - speaking a repetitive sound (e.g. "the, the, the") while trying to remember a list of words interferes with memory. These effects related to the phonological loop give evidence for its role in verbal and auditory processing.
• Mental Rotation is another aspect of working memory. This is the ability to mentally rotate an object in space.
• The Central Executive plays an important role in working memory. It is responsible for:
  • Focusing Attention
  • Allocating resources
  • Coordinating other components of working memory
• Vogel's Distractor Experiment tested the capacity of our attention system to ignore irrelevant information. The experiment found that the "cocktail party effect" is a limited one.
  • When there is more information in our attention, we have difficulty ignoring the irrelevant information.

Long-Term Memory

• Long-term memory is a type of memory that holds information for a long period of time.
• Interactions Between Long-term and short-term Memory:
  • Serial Position Curve:
    • Primacy Effect: The first items on a list are more likely to be remembered because they are more likely to be rehearsed and transferred to long-term memory.
    • Recency Effect: The last items on a list are more likely to be remembered because they are still in short-term memory.
  • Wickens' Semantic Interference in Working Memory: It is harder to learn information if the information is semantically similar to previously learned information.

Recall vs. Recognition

• Recall is the ability to remember information without any cues.
• Recognition is the ability to recognize information that has been previously encountered.
  • Recognition is generally easier than recall.
  • Recognition relies on cues to trigger memory, while recall relies on the ability to access information directly.

H.M. and the Role of the Hippocampus in Long-Term Memory

• H.M. was a famous patient who had his hippocampus removed to treat epilepsy.
• After surgery, H.M. had anterograde amnesia: he could not form new long-term memories, but he could still access memories formed before the surgery.
• This case study demonstrates that the hippocampus is crucial for forming new long-term memories.

Double Dissociations in Memory

• Double dissociations occur when two different groups of patients show opposite patterns of deficits.
  • K.C. had episodic amnesia, but his semantic memory was intact.
  • The Italian Woman had semantic amnesia, but her episodic memory was intact.
• Double dissociations help us understand the different systems involved in memory.
  • They show that episodic and semantic memory are separate and distinct from each other, and that they rely on different brain regions.

Penfield's Electrical Stimulation

• Penfield's electrical stimulation experiment helped to understand how memories are stored in the brain.
• Electrical stimulation of different areas of the brain in patients undergoing epilepsy surgery could produce vivid memories, showing that memories are stored in the brain in a vast interconnected network.

Semanticization of Memory

• Semanticization of memory is the process by which memories become less detailed and more general over time.
• Remember/Know experiments show that memories become more semantic over time.
  • Participants are asked to judge whether they "remember" a specific event or just "know" that it happened.
  • As time passes, memories become less detailed and more likely to be "known" rather than "remembered".

Goals of Long-Term Memory

• The goals of long-term memory are to:
  • Store information so that it can be retrieved later.
  • Organize information so that it can be easily accessed.

Explicit vs. Implicit Memory

• Explicit Memory is memory that can be consciously retrieved.
  • Episodic Memory: Memories of personally experienced events (e.g. first day of school)
  • Semantic Memory: General knowledge and facts (e.g. the capital of France)
• Implicit Memory is memory that is not consciously available.
  • Repetition Priming: Faster and more accurate recall of information that has been encountered previously.
  • Procedural Memory: The ability to perform learned skills without consciously thinking about them.
    • Example: riding a bike.
  • Classical Conditioning: Learning an association between two stimuli, such as a bell and food.

Double Dissociations

• Double dissociations help us understand the different systems involved in memory.
  • They show that there are distinct brain systems for explicit and implicit memory.

Explore the fascinating theories of attention, including selective and divided attention. Examine techniques like dichotic listening and understand the main theories proposed by Broadbent, Treisman, and McKay. This quiz is designed to test your knowledge of key concepts in attention research.