Psychology Chapter 6: Learning Concepts
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Questions and Answers

What is the role of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in learning?

  • It requires learning to evoke a response.
  • It becomes associated with a neutral stimulus.
  • It is an arbitrary signal with no significance.
  • It is a reflexive response that occurs naturally. (correct)

What distinguishes generalization from discrimination in learning?

  • Generalization refers to responding differently to stimuli.
  • Discrimination occurs only after extinction of a behavior.
  • Generalization involves responding similarly to different stimuli. (correct)
  • Discrimination allows the organism to respond in the same way to different stimuli.

What is a characteristic of the process of extinction in learning?

  • The learner develops a taste aversion to the conditioned stimulus.
  • The conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus stop overlapping. (correct)
  • Spontaneous recovery occurs immediately after extinction.
  • The learned behavior becomes stronger over time.

What is latent inhibition in the context of conditioning?

<p>A delay in learning about a familiar conditioned stimulus. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of observation learning, what does modeling involve?

<p>Learning by watching someone else perform an action. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main principle behind counterconditioning?

<p>Encouraging positive experiences to alter a fear response. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main goal of systematic desensitization?

<p>To systematically reduce fear responses (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines the concept of contiguity in learning?

<p>A close temporal overlap between conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which schedule of reinforcement provides a reward after varying numbers of responses?

<p>Variable Ratio (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In operant conditioning, which type of reinforcement is best suited for maintaining behaviors over time?

<p>Variable Ratio (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What typically occurs during spontaneous recovery?

<p>A sudden return of a previously extinguished response. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes fixed ratio (FR) reinforcement?

<p>Reinforcement is given after a set number of performances (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does negative reinforcement achieve in behavior modification?

<p>It increases the frequency of a behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is characteristic of a variable interval (VI) schedule?

<p>Reinforcement is given after an unpredictable time period (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a token economy, what is the primary purpose of tokens?

<p>To serve as immediate rewards for behaviors (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is latent learning most closely associated with?

<p>Learning without immediate reinforcement or motivation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is instinctive drift?

<p>The reversion to unconscious behaviors that disrupt learned behaviors. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is not a stage in the process of observation learning?

<p>Imitation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the Atkinson-Shiffrin Model, which type of memory is the first stage?

<p>Sensory memory (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does chunking enhance short-term memory?

<p>By organizing information into manageable units. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of procedural memory?

<p>It is related to memory of how to perform tasks. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly describes state-dependent memory?

<p>Memory recall is improved when in the same emotional state. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component of working memory is responsible for verbal and auditory information?

<p>Phonological loop (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of encoding utilizes sound for memory retention?

<p>Acoustic codes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process allows information to remain in short-term memory indefinitely?

<p>Maintenance rehearsal (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes long-term memory from short-term or working memory?

<p>Duration of storage (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process is commonly identified as part of forgetting?

<p>Retrieval failure (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which effect describes the superior recall for the first items on a list?

<p>Primacy effect (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Declarative memories are also known as what type of memories?

<p>Explicit memories (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How long does sensory memory typically last?

<p>1 second (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of rehearsal involves linking new material to existing knowledge?

<p>Elaborative rehearsal (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What model suggests that retrieval of information is more successful when it matches the way it was encoded?

<p>Transfer-appropriate processing model (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory is characterized by a personal account of past experiences?

<p>Episodic memory (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the role of nondeclarative memories?

<p>They are subtle influences on behavior that often go unnoticed. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect describes the alteration of memory due to misleading information after the fact?

<p>Misinformation effect (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the nature of procedural memories?

<p>They pertain to how to perform motor skills. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of memory includes vivid details about where one was during significant news events?

<p>Flashbulb memory (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which brain area is primarily responsible for the consolidation of long-term memories?

<p>Hippocampus (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key characteristic of autobiographical memories?

<p>They are widely distributed across the cerebral cortex. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon describes the recall of a related word when trying to remember a specific word?

<p>Tip-of-the-tongue (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which brain structure is primarily associated with procedural memories?

<p>Basal ganglia (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the best description of forgetting?

<p>A decrease in the ability to remember previously formed memories (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which practice is suggested to improve memory retention?

<p>Distributed practice (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the rules that may provide quick but potentially inaccurate solutions to problems?

<p>Heuristics (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What critical concept is necessary for healthy language development in children?

<p>Environmental stimulation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At which age can children typically begin to comprehend prepositions with caregiver explanations?

<p>2-3 years (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is functional fixedness?

<p>The inability to view objects as having multiple functions (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which stage of language development involves children making cooing or babbling sounds before forming words?

<p>Cooing stage (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What mechanism allows information from long-term memory to be combined with incoming information?

<p>Episodic buffer (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key distinction between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal?

<p>Maintenance rehearsal is less effective for long-term retention compared to elaborative rehearsal. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the recency effect in memory recall?

<p>Items that remain in working memory at recall are more easily remembered. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What class of memories includes general knowledge and facts?

<p>Semantic memories (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a defining characteristic of nondeclarative memories?

<p>They typically involve skills and often cannot be verbally articulated. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How long, on average, does information remain in short-term memory?

<p>18 seconds (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'transfer-appropriate processing' refer to in memory retrieval?

<p>The compatibility between encoding and retrieval methods. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during the serial position effect in memory tasks?

<p>Recall is influenced by the order of presentation of the items. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factors influence reaction times?

<p>Expectancy (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes fluid intelligence from crystallized intelligence?

<p>Fluid intelligence involves problem-solving in novel situations. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'nature via nurture' imply regarding intelligence?

<p>Genetics define a potential range, while environment affects the outcome. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of mental chronometry in psychological studies?

<p>Measuring the timing of cognitive processes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which concept best describes the flow of information in the cognitive approach to understanding intelligence?

<p>Sequential processing across multiple stages. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is reaction time related to cognitive efficiency?

<p>Higher reaction times typically indicate higher cognitive load. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between crystallized intelligence and fluid intelligence?

<p>Crystallized intelligence is more stable over time. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes standardization in psychological testing?

<p>Establishing norms for interpreting test scores. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary brain structure associated with procedural memories?

<p>Basal ganglia (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which practice is suggested to enhance memory retention over time?

<p>Recitation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the concept of functional fixedness related to?

<p>The tendency to view an object as having one fixed use (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is described as a decrease in the ability to remember a previously formed memory?

<p>Forgetting (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which age range do children typically begin to coo or babble?

<p>1 to 2 months (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What best defines 'critical periods' in language acquisition?

<p>Necessary times for children to receive stimulation for healthy development (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do heuristics play in problem-solving?

<p>They simplify complex problems using rules of thumb (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At what age can children typically comprehend prepositions with caregiver explanations?

<p>2 to 3 years (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens during the process of extinction in learning?

<p>The individual begins to forget the learned association. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the process where a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus?

<p>Conditioning (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of contiguity in the learning process?

<p>It emphasizes the importance of time overlap between stimuli. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does flooding work as a technique in dealing with fears?

<p>By overwhelming the individual with their fear to decrease sensitivity. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of chunking in memory?

<p>To enhance the efficiency of short-term memory (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes spontaneous recovery?

<p>The gradual increase of response strength to a CS after extinction. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does taste aversion imply regarding conditioned and unconditioned stimuli?

<p>Taste aversion can develop after a single negative experience with food. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process is NOT a part of the three basic processes of memory?

<p>Chunking (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines the difference between semantic memory and procedural memory?

<p>Semantic memory deals with facts and knowledge, while procedural memory involves how to perform tasks. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by generalization in the context of learning?

<p>The tendency to respond similarly to different but related stimuli. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does latent inhibition play in learning about familiar stimuli?

<p>It slows down the process of associating a familiar CS with an UCS. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following codes is used in sensory memory to represent sounds?

<p>Acoustic Codes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'state-dependent memory' refer to?

<p>Memory being better when a person is in the same physical state as when they learned it (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of memory is specifically associated with the ability to recall personal experiences?

<p>Episodic Memory (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about retrieval cues is accurate?

<p>Retrieval cues are only effective if they are similar to the original encoding context. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of implicit memory?

<p>It operates automatically without conscious awareness. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is habituation in the context of learning?

<p>A decrease in response to a repeated harmless stimulus. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes operant conditioning?

<p>Forming associations between behaviors and their consequences. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes dishabituation?

<p>An abrupt increase in response to a familiar stimulus due to a change. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of classical conditioning?

<p>To pair two different stimuli to elicit a reaction. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which concept involves increased reactions to multiple stimuli following exposure to a strong initial stimulus?

<p>Sensitization (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of reinforcement schedule is characterized by providing rewards after a fixed number of responses?

<p>Fixed Ratio (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes latent learning?

<p>Learning that occurs without reinforcement. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of learning involves a change in response magnitude to a single stimulus?

<p>Nonassociative Learning (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Observation Learning

Learning by watching and imitating others.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A stimulus that, after learning, elicits a response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.

Contingency

A consistent relationship between a CS and UCS, occurring every time.

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Taste Aversion

Learning to avoid a food after a single negative experience.

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Extinction

Weakening of a learned response when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS.

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Generalization

Responding similarly to similar stimuli.

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Latent Inhibition

Learning takes longer with familiar CS than unfamiliar CS.

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Systematic Desensitization

A therapy technique that gradually reduces fear responses by increasing exposure to feared stimuli.

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Operant Conditioning

Learning through consequences of behaviors (rewards/punishments).

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Reinforcement (Positive)

Increasing a behavior by adding a desirable stimulus.

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Reinforcement (Negative)

Increasing a behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus.

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Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs.

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Partial Reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior sometimes, but not every time.

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Variable Ratio Schedule

Reinforcing a behavior after a varying number of responses.

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Token Economy

Using tokens as rewards to motivate a person.

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Instinctive Drift

A tendency for organisms to revert to innate, automatic behaviors that might interfere with learned behaviors through operant conditioning.

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Procedural Memory

Type of long-term memory responsible for remembering how to perform tasks, like riding a bike or tying your shoes.

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Shaping

A training method that reinforces behaviors progressively closer to the desired target behavior, using successive approximations.

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Forgetting

Loss of ability to recall information or retrieve a memory that was previously formed.

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Sensory Memory

A brief, initial memory stage that holds vast amounts of sensory data, but it fades quickly.

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Distributed Practice

Spreading out learning sessions over time instead of cramming.

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Chunking

Grouping items into meaningful chunks to enhance short-term memory capacity.

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Mnemonics

Memory techniques that use associations and creativity to improve recall.

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Heuristics

Mental shortcuts people use to solve problems quickly, but they might not always lead to the best solution.

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Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

A model describing memory as a sequence of stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

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Critical Periods

Specific developmental stages when environmental input is essential for certain skills to develop properly.

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Functional Fixedness

Inability to see alternative uses for an object beyond its common function.

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Encoding (memory)

Converting information into a form usable by memory, e.g., visual, acoustic, semantic.

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Mental Set

Expectation or tendency to solve problems using a particular method, even if it isn't the most effective.

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Retrieval Cues

Stimuli that help in recalling stored information.

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Episodic Memory

Personal recollection of past experiences, including details of time, place, and emotions.

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Autobiographical Memory

A blend of semantic and episodic memories, forming a personal narrative of one's life.

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Nondeclarative Memory

Memories that are difficult to verbalize, often learned through repeated practice and experience.

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Classical Conditioning

Learning to associate a neutral stimulus with a reflexive response.

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Encoding Specificity

Memory retrieval is better when the context at encoding matches the context at recall.

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Misinformation Effect

Memories can be altered by exposure to misleading information after the event.

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Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

The temporary inability to retrieve a known word or name, despite feeling close to remembering it.

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Working Memory

A short-term memory system actively manipulated for processing information, unlike passive short-term memory. It can hold and process multiple types of information at once.

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Serial Position Effect

Describes the tendency for people to recall items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list better than those in the middle.

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Primacy Effect

Superior recall for items at the beginning of a list, likely due to encoding in long-term memory.

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Recency Effect

Superior recall for items at the end of a list, because they remained in working memory during recall.

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Long-Term Memory

The storage of information for extended periods, potentially a lifetime. Information often moves here from working memory through rehearsal.

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Semantic Memory

A type of declarative memory which stores general knowledge (like word meanings and facts).

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Maintenance Rehearsal

Simple repetition of information to keep it in short-term/working memory. It doesn't involve deep processing or connecting new material to what you already know.

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Habituation

Decreased response to a repeated stimulus that's deemed harmless. Like getting used to traffic noise.

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Dishabituation

Increased response to a stimulus previously habituated to, after a change or interruption. Like noticing a fan's hum getting louder then back to normal.

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Sensitization

Increased response to a wide range of stimuli after experiencing a strong stimulus. Like being startled by noises after an earthquake.

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Unconditioned Response (UCR)

The natural response to an unconditioned stimulus. Like salivating to food.

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Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned response to the conditioned stimulus. Like a dog salivating to a bell.

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What is Contiguity in classical conditioning?

The close proximity in time between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is essential for learning to occur.

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What is Contingency in classical conditioning?

A consistent correlation or relationship between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) must exist for learning to take place. The CS reliably predicts the UCS.

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What is Generalization?

When an organism responds similarly to different stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus.

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What is Discrimination?

The ability to differentiate between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and other similar stimuli that do not predict the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

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What is Extinction?

The gradual weakening of a learned response when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

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What is Spontaneous Recovery?

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest.

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What is Taste Aversion?

Learning to avoid a food after a single negative experience with it, even if the food was not the actual cause of the illness.

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What is Latent Inhibition?

Learning about a familiar conditioned stimulus (CS) takes longer than learning about an unfamiliar conditioned stimulus (CS).

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Shaping (successive approximations)

A method of training where behaviors that resemble the target behavior are reinforced, gradually leading to the desired action.

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What are the 4 stages of Observational Learning?

The stages are: Attention, Retention, Reproduction, and Motivation. An individual must pay attention, remember the observed behavior, be capable of reproducing it, and have motivation to do so.

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Acoustic Codes

Representations of sounds and words used to temporarily store auditory information in sensory memory.

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What are the 3 basic processes of memory?

The basic processes are Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval. Encoding converts information into a usable form for memory, Storage retains that information, and Retrieval brings it back to consciousness.

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Phonological Loop

Part of working memory that deals with auditory and verbal information. It's like a recording device that loops sound in your mind.

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Visuospatial Sketchpad

Part of working memory responsible for visual and spatial information. It allows you to mentally picture things and manipulate them.

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Episodic Buffer

Part of working memory that integrates information from other parts of the system, including long-term memory. It helps make sense of things by combining different pieces.

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Elaborative Rehearsal

Connecting new information to existing knowledge in your long-term memory, to deepen understanding and improve retention. It's more than just repeating facts; it's making them meaningful.

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Language Acquisition

The process humans go through to understand, perceive, and use language.

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Telegraphic Speech

Early speech that uses only essential words, like 'want juice' instead of 'I want some juice'.

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What do children learn between 7-18 months from caregivers?

They learn what they are NOT supposed to do.

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Mental Chronometry

The study of the timing of mental events, typically measured by reaction time.

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Reaction Time

The time it takes to respond to a stimulus.

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Factors influencing reaction times

Elements that can affect how fast we react, such as complexity of the task, expectation, compatibility of stimulus and response, and the trade-off between speed and accuracy.

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Crystallized Intelligence

The ability to solve problems using previously acquired knowledge and experience.

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Fluid Intelligence

The ability to think flexibly and adapt to novel situations.

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Biological correlates of Intelligence

The relationship between biological factors like genetics and environmental factors in shaping intelligence.

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Standardization

The process of creating a consistent and standardized method for administering and scoring a test, ensuring fair comparisons.

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Reliability

The consistency or dependability of a test, meaning it yields similar results when administered repeatedly.

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Study Notes

CH:5 Learning

  • Classical Conditioning (UCS, UCR, NS, CS, CR) involves forming connections between stimuli.
  • Extinction/Spontaneous Recovery: Loss of learned response followed by return.
  • Generalization/Discrimination: responding similarly to similar stimuli, or distinguishing different stimuli.
  • Habituation/Dishabituation: decreased/increased response to repeated stimuli.
  • Operant Conditioning: learning through consequences (reinforcement/punishment).
  • Partial Reinforcement (Variable/Fixed ratio/interval): reinforcement not given every time.
  • Ways we learn (observational, CC, Operant): Different methods of learning.
  • Latent Learning: learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement.
  • Nonassociative Learning: changes in response to a single stimulus without pairing.
    • Habituation: decreased response to repeated stimuli.
    • Dishabituation: increased response after a change in a habituated stimulus.
    • Sensitization: increased response after exposure to a strong stimulus.
  • Classical Conditioning: associating two stimuli to create a learned response.
    • UCS (unconditioned stimulus): naturally triggers a response.
    • UCR (unconditioned response): natural response to UCS.
    • NS (neutral stimulus): initially doesn't trigger response.
    • CS (conditioned stimulus): once associated with UCS, triggers a response.
    • CR (conditioned response): learned response to CS.
  • Associative Learning: connecting stimuli and behaviors.
  • Classical Conditioning - associating two stimuli to predict future events.
  • Operant Conditioning - learning through consequences of behaviors.
    • Positive reinforcement: adding a desirable stimulus.
    • Negative reinforcement: removing an undesirable stimulus.
    • Positive punishment: adding an undesirable stimulus.
    • Negative punishment: removing a desirable stimulus.
  • Observation Learning (social learning): learning by observing others.
  • Contiguity: close timing of stimuli is important for learning associations.
  • Contingency: the reliability of the relationship between stimuli is important for learning associations.

CH:6 Memory

  • Techniques to improve short-term memory retention.
  • Ways to increase/decrease memory efficiency.
  • Transfer-appropriate processing.
  • Context-specific memory.
  • Mood-contingency memory.
  • Implicit vs. explicit memory.
  • Basic processes of memory: encoding, storage, retrieval.
  • Reaction time: factors like expectancy, complexity, and stimulus-response compatibility.
  • Biological correlates and forgetting.
  • Memory as a system: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Atkinson-Shiffrin model.
  • Sensory memory: very brief initial storage of sensory data (iconic and echoic).
  • Short-term memory (STM): limited capacity/duration storage (about 7 +/- 2 items).
  • Long-term memory (LTM): large capacity/enduring storage.
  • Chunking: increasing STM capacity by grouping items.
  • Working memory: active manipulation of information.
  • Phonological loop: for verbal and auditory information.
  • Visuospatial sketchpad: for visual and spatial information.
  • Episodic buffer: combines information from different sources.
  • Memory differences between working and long-term memory.
  • Primacy effect: superior recall for items at the beginning of a list.
  • Recency effect: superior recall for items at the end of a list.
  • Encoding Specificity Principle: memory retrieval is best when the context at retrieval matches the context at encoding.
  • Serial Position Effect: The primacy and recency effects are part of this.

CH:7 Thought and Language

  • Schemas, scripts, concepts, cognitive maps, heuristics: mental frameworks for understanding.
  • Language development: stages like cooing, babbling, and telegraphic speech.
  • Critical periods for language acquisition.
  • Functional fixedness: tendency to view an object as having only one use.
  • Mental sets: preconceived notions about how to solve problems.
  • Framing: how information is presented affects decisions.
  • Bilingualism: advantages of being fluent in multiple languages.
  • Mental chronometry: the timing of mental events, such as reaction times.
  • Factors influencing reaction times.

CH:8 Intelligence

  • Defining intelligence: ability to learn, reason, solve problems, and adapt.
  • Different theories of intelligence: (e.g., Spearman's g factor).
  • Crystallized intelligence: knowledge and skills acquired through experience.
  • Fluid intelligence: ability to reason and solve novel problems.
  • The relationship between crystallized and fluid intelligence across the lifespan (peaks and declines).
  • Standardized, reliable, and valid measures of intelligence: important for testing.
  • Nature vs. nurture influences: genes and environment shape intelligence development (nature via nurture).

General Note

  • Standardization, reliability, and validity, are important considerations in measuring intelligence.
  • Information processing model: focuses on how information is processed in the brain. Different memory stores and processes.

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Principles of Body Conditioning

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AdvantageousCharacterization
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