Psychology Chapter 6: Learning Concepts

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Questions and Answers

What is the role of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in learning?

It requires learning to evoke a response.

It becomes associated with a neutral stimulus.

It is an arbitrary signal with no significance.

It is a reflexive response that occurs naturally. (correct)

What distinguishes generalization from discrimination in learning?

Generalization refers to responding differently to stimuli.

Discrimination occurs only after extinction of a behavior.

Generalization involves responding similarly to different stimuli. (correct)

Discrimination allows the organism to respond in the same way to different stimuli.

What is a characteristic of the process of extinction in learning?

The learner develops a taste aversion to the conditioned stimulus.

The conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus stop overlapping. (correct)

Spontaneous recovery occurs immediately after extinction.

The learned behavior becomes stronger over time.

What is latent inhibition in the context of conditioning?

A delay in learning about a familiar conditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of observation learning, what does modeling involve?

Learning by watching someone else perform an action. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main principle behind counterconditioning?

Encouraging positive experiences to alter a fear response. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main goal of systematic desensitization?

To systematically reduce fear responses Signup and view all the answers

What defines the concept of contiguity in learning?

A close temporal overlap between conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

Which schedule of reinforcement provides a reward after varying numbers of responses?

Variable Ratio Signup and view all the answers

In operant conditioning, which type of reinforcement is best suited for maintaining behaviors over time?

Variable Ratio Signup and view all the answers

What typically occurs during spontaneous recovery?

A sudden return of a previously extinguished response. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes fixed ratio (FR) reinforcement?

Reinforcement is given after a set number of performances Signup and view all the answers

What does negative reinforcement achieve in behavior modification?

It increases the frequency of a behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is characteristic of a variable interval (VI) schedule?

Reinforcement is given after an unpredictable time period Signup and view all the answers

In a token economy, what is the primary purpose of tokens?

To serve as immediate rewards for behaviors Signup and view all the answers

What is latent learning most closely associated with?

Learning without immediate reinforcement or motivation Signup and view all the answers

What is instinctive drift?

The reversion to unconscious behaviors that disrupt learned behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is not a stage in the process of observation learning?

Imitation Signup and view all the answers

In the Atkinson-Shiffrin Model, which type of memory is the first stage?

Sensory memory Signup and view all the answers

How does chunking enhance short-term memory?

By organizing information into manageable units. Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of procedural memory?

It is related to memory of how to perform tasks. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly describes state-dependent memory?

Memory recall is improved when in the same emotional state. Signup and view all the answers

Which component of working memory is responsible for verbal and auditory information?

Phonological loop Signup and view all the answers

Which type of encoding utilizes sound for memory retention?

Acoustic codes Signup and view all the answers

What process allows information to remain in short-term memory indefinitely?

Maintenance rehearsal Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes long-term memory from short-term or working memory?

Duration of storage Signup and view all the answers

What process is commonly identified as part of forgetting?

Retrieval failure Signup and view all the answers

Which effect describes the superior recall for the first items on a list?

Primacy effect Signup and view all the answers

Declarative memories are also known as what type of memories?

Explicit memories Signup and view all the answers

How long does sensory memory typically last?

1 second Signup and view all the answers

Which type of rehearsal involves linking new material to existing knowledge?

Elaborative rehearsal Signup and view all the answers

What model suggests that retrieval of information is more successful when it matches the way it was encoded?

Transfer-appropriate processing model Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory is characterized by a personal account of past experiences?

Episodic memory Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the role of nondeclarative memories?

They are subtle influences on behavior that often go unnoticed. Signup and view all the answers

What effect describes the alteration of memory due to misleading information after the fact?

Misinformation effect Signup and view all the answers

What is the nature of procedural memories?

They pertain to how to perform motor skills. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of memory includes vivid details about where one was during significant news events?

Flashbulb memory Signup and view all the answers

Which brain area is primarily responsible for the consolidation of long-term memories?

Hippocampus Signup and view all the answers

What is the key characteristic of autobiographical memories?

They are widely distributed across the cerebral cortex. Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon describes the recall of a related word when trying to remember a specific word?

Tip-of-the-tongue Signup and view all the answers

Which brain structure is primarily associated with procedural memories?

Basal ganglia Signup and view all the answers

What is the best description of forgetting?

A decrease in the ability to remember previously formed memories Signup and view all the answers

Which practice is suggested to improve memory retention?

Distributed practice Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the rules that may provide quick but potentially inaccurate solutions to problems?

Heuristics Signup and view all the answers

What critical concept is necessary for healthy language development in children?

Environmental stimulation Signup and view all the answers

At which age can children typically begin to comprehend prepositions with caregiver explanations?

2-3 years Signup and view all the answers

What is functional fixedness?

The inability to view objects as having multiple functions Signup and view all the answers

Which stage of language development involves children making cooing or babbling sounds before forming words?

Cooing stage Signup and view all the answers

What mechanism allows information from long-term memory to be combined with incoming information?

Episodic buffer Signup and view all the answers

What is the key distinction between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal?

Maintenance rehearsal is less effective for long-term retention compared to elaborative rehearsal. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the recency effect in memory recall?

Items that remain in working memory at recall are more easily remembered. Signup and view all the answers

What class of memories includes general knowledge and facts?

Semantic memories Signup and view all the answers

What is a defining characteristic of nondeclarative memories?

They typically involve skills and often cannot be verbally articulated. Signup and view all the answers

How long, on average, does information remain in short-term memory?

18 seconds Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'transfer-appropriate processing' refer to in memory retrieval?

The compatibility between encoding and retrieval methods. Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during the serial position effect in memory tasks?

Recall is influenced by the order of presentation of the items. Signup and view all the answers

Which factors influence reaction times?

Expectancy Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes fluid intelligence from crystallized intelligence?

Fluid intelligence involves problem-solving in novel situations. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'nature via nurture' imply regarding intelligence?

Genetics define a potential range, while environment affects the outcome. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of mental chronometry in psychological studies?

Measuring the timing of cognitive processes. Signup and view all the answers

Which concept best describes the flow of information in the cognitive approach to understanding intelligence?

Sequential processing across multiple stages. Signup and view all the answers

How is reaction time related to cognitive efficiency?

Higher reaction times typically indicate higher cognitive load. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between crystallized intelligence and fluid intelligence?

Crystallized intelligence is more stable over time. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes standardization in psychological testing?

Establishing norms for interpreting test scores. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary brain structure associated with procedural memories?

Basal ganglia Signup and view all the answers

Which practice is suggested to enhance memory retention over time?

Recitation Signup and view all the answers

What is the concept of functional fixedness related to?

The tendency to view an object as having one fixed use Signup and view all the answers

What is described as a decrease in the ability to remember a previously formed memory?

Forgetting Signup and view all the answers

Which age range do children typically begin to coo or babble?

1 to 2 months Signup and view all the answers

What best defines 'critical periods' in language acquisition?

Necessary times for children to receive stimulation for healthy development Signup and view all the answers

What role do heuristics play in problem-solving?

They simplify complex problems using rules of thumb Signup and view all the answers

At what age can children typically comprehend prepositions with caregiver explanations?

2 to 3 years Signup and view all the answers

What happens during the process of extinction in learning?

The individual begins to forget the learned association. Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the process where a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus?

Conditioning Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of contiguity in the learning process?

It emphasizes the importance of time overlap between stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

How does flooding work as a technique in dealing with fears?

By overwhelming the individual with their fear to decrease sensitivity. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of chunking in memory?

To enhance the efficiency of short-term memory Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes spontaneous recovery?

The gradual increase of response strength to a CS after extinction. Signup and view all the answers

What does taste aversion imply regarding conditioned and unconditioned stimuli?

Taste aversion can develop after a single negative experience with food. Signup and view all the answers

Which process is NOT a part of the three basic processes of memory?

Chunking Signup and view all the answers

What defines the difference between semantic memory and procedural memory?

Semantic memory deals with facts and knowledge, while procedural memory involves how to perform tasks. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by generalization in the context of learning?

The tendency to respond similarly to different but related stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

What role does latent inhibition play in learning about familiar stimuli?

It slows down the process of associating a familiar CS with an UCS. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following codes is used in sensory memory to represent sounds?

Acoustic Codes Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'state-dependent memory' refer to?

Memory being better when a person is in the same physical state as when they learned it Signup and view all the answers

Which type of memory is specifically associated with the ability to recall personal experiences?

Episodic Memory Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about retrieval cues is accurate?

Retrieval cues are only effective if they are similar to the original encoding context. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of implicit memory?

It operates automatically without conscious awareness. Signup and view all the answers

What is habituation in the context of learning?

A decrease in response to a repeated harmless stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes operant conditioning?

Forming associations between behaviors and their consequences. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes dishabituation?

An abrupt increase in response to a familiar stimulus due to a change. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of classical conditioning?

To pair two different stimuli to elicit a reaction. Signup and view all the answers

Which concept involves increased reactions to multiple stimuli following exposure to a strong initial stimulus?

Sensitization Signup and view all the answers

What type of reinforcement schedule is characterized by providing rewards after a fixed number of responses?

Fixed Ratio Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes latent learning?

Learning that occurs without reinforcement. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of learning involves a change in response magnitude to a single stimulus?

Nonassociative Learning Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

CH:5 Learning

Classical Conditioning (UCS, UCR, NS, CS, CR) involves forming connections between stimuli.
Extinction/Spontaneous Recovery: Loss of learned response followed by return.
Generalization/Discrimination: responding similarly to similar stimuli, or distinguishing different stimuli.
Habituation/Dishabituation: decreased/increased response to repeated stimuli.
Operant Conditioning: learning through consequences (reinforcement/punishment).
Partial Reinforcement (Variable/Fixed ratio/interval): reinforcement not given every time.
Ways we learn (observational, CC, Operant): Different methods of learning.
Latent Learning: learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement.
Nonassociative Learning: changes in response to a single stimulus without pairing.
- Habituation: decreased response to repeated stimuli.
- Dishabituation: increased response after a change in a habituated stimulus.
- Sensitization: increased response after exposure to a strong stimulus.
Classical Conditioning: associating two stimuli to create a learned response.
- UCS (unconditioned stimulus): naturally triggers a response.
- UCR (unconditioned response): natural response to UCS.
- NS (neutral stimulus): initially doesn't trigger response.
- CS (conditioned stimulus): once associated with UCS, triggers a response.
- CR (conditioned response): learned response to CS.
Associative Learning: connecting stimuli and behaviors.
Classical Conditioning - associating two stimuli to predict future events.
Operant Conditioning - learning through consequences of behaviors.
- Positive reinforcement: adding a desirable stimulus.
- Negative reinforcement: removing an undesirable stimulus.
- Positive punishment: adding an undesirable stimulus.
- Negative punishment: removing a desirable stimulus.
Observation Learning (social learning): learning by observing others.
Contiguity: close timing of stimuli is important for learning associations.
Contingency: the reliability of the relationship between stimuli is important for learning associations.

CH:6 Memory

Techniques to improve short-term memory retention.
Ways to increase/decrease memory efficiency.
Transfer-appropriate processing.
Context-specific memory.
Mood-contingency memory.
Implicit vs. explicit memory.
Basic processes of memory: encoding, storage, retrieval.
Reaction time: factors like expectancy, complexity, and stimulus-response compatibility.
Biological correlates and forgetting.
Memory as a system: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Atkinson-Shiffrin model.
Sensory memory: very brief initial storage of sensory data (iconic and echoic).
Short-term memory (STM): limited capacity/duration storage (about 7 +/- 2 items).
Long-term memory (LTM): large capacity/enduring storage.
Chunking: increasing STM capacity by grouping items.
Working memory: active manipulation of information.
Phonological loop: for verbal and auditory information.
Visuospatial sketchpad: for visual and spatial information.
Episodic buffer: combines information from different sources.
Memory differences between working and long-term memory.
Primacy effect: superior recall for items at the beginning of a list.
Recency effect: superior recall for items at the end of a list.
Encoding Specificity Principle: memory retrieval is best when the context at retrieval matches the context at encoding.
Serial Position Effect: The primacy and recency effects are part of this.

CH:7 Thought and Language

Schemas, scripts, concepts, cognitive maps, heuristics: mental frameworks for understanding.
Language development: stages like cooing, babbling, and telegraphic speech.
Critical periods for language acquisition.
Functional fixedness: tendency to view an object as having only one use.
Mental sets: preconceived notions about how to solve problems.
Framing: how information is presented affects decisions.
Bilingualism: advantages of being fluent in multiple languages.
Mental chronometry: the timing of mental events, such as reaction times.
Factors influencing reaction times.

CH:8 Intelligence

Defining intelligence: ability to learn, reason, solve problems, and adapt.
Different theories of intelligence: (e.g., Spearman's g factor).
Crystallized intelligence: knowledge and skills acquired through experience.
Fluid intelligence: ability to reason and solve novel problems.
The relationship between crystallized and fluid intelligence across the lifespan (peaks and declines).
Standardized, reliable, and valid measures of intelligence: important for testing.
Nature vs. nurture influences: genes and environment shape intelligence development (nature via nurture).

General Note

Standardization, reliability, and validity, are important considerations in measuring intelligence.
Information processing model: focuses on how information is processed in the brain. Different memory stores and processes.

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Explore key concepts from Chapter 6 of Psychology, focusing on learning theories such as conditioning, reinforcement schedules, and observational learning. This quiz will help you understand fundamental principles like unconditioned stimuli, extinction, and systematic desensitization. Test your knowledge and enhance your understanding of learning processes and their applications.