CH 5 Learning PDF

CH:5: Learning Classical Condition (UCS, UCR, NS, CS,CR) Extinction/ Spontaneous Recovery Generalization/ Discrimination Habituation/Dishabituation Operant Conditioning (Positive/negative reinforcement/punishment) Partial reinforcement (Variable/Fixed ratio/interval) Ways we learn (observational, CC...

CH:5: Learning Classical Condition (UCS, UCR, NS, CS,CR) Extinction/ Spontaneous Recovery Generalization/ Discrimination Habituation/Dishabituation Operant Conditioning (Positive/negative reinforcement/punishment) Partial reinforcement (Variable/Fixed ratio/interval) Ways we learn (observational, CC, Operant) Latent Learning Learning – a relatively permanent change in behavior or the capacity for behavior that occurs due to experience. Nonassociative Learning involves changes in the magnitude of responses to a single stimulus rather than the formation of connections between stimuli. 1. Habituation - reduces our reactions to repeated experiences that have already been evaluated and found to be unchanging and harmless. (get used to it like the sound of fan) 2. Dishabituation occurs when an organism begins to respond more intensely to a stimulus to which it has previously habituated. (Something interrupted something that you are used to like the sound of fan gets louder and then back to normal.) 3. sensitization increases our reactions to a wide range of stimuli following exposure to one strong stimulus. (Following an earthquake, people often experience exaggerated responses to movement, light, or noise.) Classical Condition (UCS, UCR, NS, CS,CR) Associative Learning – when we form some connection with the stimulus (anything that happens in our environment with and the behavior) (helps predict the future based on past experience) ( if a happens, then b is likely to follow) ( the ability to anticipate the future provides enormous survival advantages, as animals gain time to prepare) 1. Classical condition – pairing two things together. One stimulus and another pairing them together for learning to occur to produce a different response. A child sees a bee for the first time and get stung. Likely to feel frightened the next time see bee. (simply two stimuli (sight of the bee, pain of the sting that are joined) 2. Operate conditioning – form associations between behaviors and their consequences. Positive or negative reinforcement and punishment (base on the child decision to act or not) If you swat at a bee and it stings you, you’ll be less likely to do it next time. If you stand still and the bee leaves you alone, you’ll be more likely to do that next time. Observation learning (social learning or modeling) – When you just watch someone else do something, and they can repeat that action. “Conditioned stimuli” (CS) refers to something that must be learned “Unconditioned stimuli” (UCS) refers to items that are reflexive or that occur without any learning. Neutral stimulus – doesn’t do anything, no meaning, not going to cause change Learning process occurs, the neutral stimulus changes to condition stimulus Contiguity – where you are having an overlap of the stimulus (close proximity in time between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). Contingency – happening every single time (correlation between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (UCS). Generalization – If the dog responds in the same way from the metronome as he does to the bell (any types of noise that the dog response the same way) Discrimination – where you begin to differentiate between the two. Extinction – As time goes on, extinction begins to occur where the animal or the human begins to realize you’re not overlapping these things anymore. There’s not good contiguity, therefore the learn behavior is going to be extinguished right. Spontaneous recovery – Things remember quickly because of the previous experience. Taste Aversion – idea that the types of stimuli that are used as condition and unconditioned stimuli do really matter. (not eating food again right away (only one trail) because of vomit). Latent inhibition – it takes more time to learn about a familiar conditioned stimulus (CS) than about an unfamiliar conditioned stimulus (CS). - It is more likely that you would need to be sick many times after eating pizza before you learned to connect eating pizza with being ill.  - In contrast, if you get sick the first time you eat chocolate covered ants (unfamiliar conditioned stimulus), assuming these are not already your favorite treat, you’ll associate eating ants with feeling ill very quickly – you will learn a taste aversion. Flooding – throw someone into something that they fear, to overcome the fear because flooded with emotion, and finding way to survive, and after you survive that time, tell yourself I’m going to be okay with similar situation. Counterconditioning - Positivity like encouragement or giving pieces of candy after they do something they fear. - Systematic desensitization – type of therapeutic intervention to where you are systematically increasing the capacity for someone to be desensitized to the thing that they fear. Consequences of condition Add stimulus to environment Remove stimulus from environment Make behavior more frequent Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Make behavior less frequent Positive punishment Negative punishment Schedules of Reinforcement - Continuous reinforcement – (start a behavior to where you want them to do more or less of it) (every time it happens you reinforce with candy) - every time a behavior occurs - Partial reinforcement – doing less often (reinforcement of the desired behavior on some occasions but not others) Fixed ratio (FR) – schedule requires that a behavior occur a set number of times for each reinforcer. (the reward is given after a set, consistent number of behaviors) (Continuous reinforcement) Variable ration (VR) schedules are given after a fluctuating number of behaviors. (every 7-10 behaviors) - The slot machine is programmed on a variable ratio (VR) schedule, which means that the player cannot predict how many plays it will take to win. In response, players exhibit the same high, steady rate of responding that we observe in rats working on VR schedules in the laboratory. Fixed Interval (FI) – depends on the passage of time rather than the number of responses produced. The time that must pass before reinforcement becomes available following a single response is set at a certain amount. Variable Interval - characterized by an interval that is allowed to fluctuate around some average amount over the course of a session. Variable ratio -best, Fixed ratio – second best, Variable interval next, fixed interval being least likely to learn. (more time) Token economies – offer effective rewards that are truly valuable to the people you wish to motivate (getting bigger to big reward) Bandura’s Experiment – kids learn through observation (how do kids learn violence?) Operant Conditioning - Laten learning – the subconscious retention of information without reinforcement or motivation. - Instinctive Drift – occurs when organisms have a tendency to revert to unconscious and automatic behavior that could interfere with learned behaviors from operant conditioning. - Using shaping, or the method of successive approximations, we begin by reinforcing spontaneous behaviors that are somewhat similar to the target behavior we want to train. The Process of Observation Learning - Attention - Retention - Reproduction  - Motivation CH:6 Memory Techniques used to increase short-term memory retention Ways that increase/decrease efficiency of memory Transfer-appropriate processing vs. information processing vs. state-dependent memory vs. context-specific memory vs. mood contingency Sematic vs. procedural memory Implicit vs. explicit memory 3 basic processes of memory Retrieval cues Reaction time: expectancy, speed-accuracy tradeoff, complexity, stimulus-response compatibility. Ways of forgetting Biological correlates with memory Memory is the system by which we retain information and bring it to mind. MEMORY – encoding (converting information into a form of usable in memory) (acoustic, visual, sematic = general meaning of an experience) à storage(hippocampus) (retaining information in memory) (episodic – memories from past, procedural – memory on how to do things) à retrieval (bringing stored information to mind) (recall, recognition) Memory does not exist in isolation instead, part of a continuum of information processing that begins with attention, sensation, perception, and learning, and progresses to the use of stored information in thinking, problem solving, language, and intelligent behavior. Atkinson – Shiffrin Model: information flows through a series of separate stages of memory Incoming information is processed in a first stage: sensory memory (hold enormous amounts of sensory data but data remain for very brief periods of time, usually a second or less, or if the neural activity produced by a sensation continues) - Visual Codes: used for the temporary storage of information about visual images (iconic memories) - Haptic Codes: used to process touch and other body senses - Acoustic Codes: represent sound and words (echoic memories) Chunking: allows people to store more information by increasing the efficiency of short-term memory, as opposed to increasing the overall capacity of short-term memory. Working Memory – can be actively manipulated, manage multiple types of information simultaneously. - Phonological loop: responsible for verbal and auditory information - Visuospatial sketchpad: holds visual and spatial information - Episodic buffer: provides a mechanism for combining information stored in long-term memory. A tiny amount of information in the sensory memory will be moved to the nest stage, Short- term memory for further processing, Maintenance rehearsal: information stats in short-term memory indefinitely if you are not asked to think about anything else. Data are easily displaced by new, incoming bits of data. Final stage of memory processing is Long-term memory - Most cases, information moves from short-term or working memory to long-term memory through rehearsal - Rehearsal can be divided into maintenance rehearsal, which means simpler repetition of the material, and elaborative rehearsal, which involved linking the new material to things you already know. - Transfer-appropriate processing model of memory: matching how we retrieve information with how we originally encoded it. - Neural Network Processing: finding out how new information relates to previously learned information. - Information-processing model of memory: - sensory memory lost after 1 second, short-term memory lost after about 18 second, long-term memory long periods/life. Difference between working and long-term memories can be seen in classic experiments demonstrating the serial position effect. Can be observed when participants are asked to learn a list of words and recall them in any order they choose. Primacy effect: the superior recall for the first items on a list, believed to result from the storage of items in long-term memory. Recency effect: The superior recall for the last words on the list, occurs because items remain in working memory at the time of recall (disappears if recalled is delayed by 30 second) Long-term memory can be divided into declarative or conscious memories and nondeclarative or unconscious memories. - Declarative memories are easy to “declare,” or discuss verbally. Also referred to as explicit memories because they are typically accessed in a very conscious, direct, and effortful manner. n Sematic memory: contain store of general knowledge in the form of word meanings and facts. n Episodic memory: more personal account of past experiences Blending of semantic and episodic memories characterizes autobiographical memories. - Nondeclarative memories are difficult to discuss. Also known as implicit memories because they affect our behavior in subconscious, indirect and effortless ways. n Procedural memories: memories for how to carry out motor skills and procedures, are especially difficult to describe in words. Ability to automate our performance. n Classical conditioning: when we learn that a stimulus signals an important upcoming event. n Priming: change in our response to a stimulus due to pre-exposure to relate stimuli, explains many everyday effects of familiarity. When we encounter new information, we attempt to fit the new information into an existing schema, or set of expectations about objects and situations. The encoding specificity: Each time you form a long-term memory, bits of information are encoded along with other important bits that were present at the same time. As a result, each memory is processed in a unique and specific way, as this exact same combination of bits is unlikely to occur together again. Misinformation effect: memory of event can be altered by later exposure to misleading information about these events Tip-the-tongue: You are trying to remember a word or name, and you might retrieve another word that either starts with the same letter or has the same meaning. You know that the retrieved word is not the one you’re looking for, but you’re close. Flashbulb memory: vivid memory including details of where they were and what they were doing when they first heard the news. The hippocampus itself is unlikely to serve as a storage location for memories, but it clearly participates in the consolidation of information into long-term memory. Circuits connecting the hippocampus and adjacent temporal lobe memory areas with the cortex are believed to participate in long-term memory consolidation. Semantic, episodic, and autobiographical memories involve the participation of the cerebral cortex. Semantic memories appear to be widely distributed across the cerebral cortex Episodic memories are affected by damage to the prefrontal cortex. Autobiographical memories are perhaps the most widely distributed of all types of memory in the cerebral cortex. Because these memories capture perceptual, factual, and emotional details of past experience, we find activation not only in the prefrontal areas associated with episodic memories but also in the relevant areas of cerebral cortex associated with perception and movement. Procedural memories are correlated with activation of the basal ganglia, forebrain structures that are part of the brain’s motor systems. Forgetting is a decrease in the ability to remember a previously formed memory. The key here is that to “forget,” a memory must have been formed in the first place. This definition excludes a number of instances that we have discussed previously. THEORIES OF FORGETTING IMPROVING MEMORY - Distributed practice: practice spread out over time as opposed to massed practice. - Take tests - Sleep - Recite - Use mnemonics: expand memory capacity by linking the material to be remembered to information that is relatively effortless to retrieve.  CH: 7 Thought and Language Schemas vs scripts vs. concepts vs. cognitive map vs. heuristics Heuristics: shortcut rules that are applied to solve problems, they may not also lead to accurate solution but work to provide quick, efficient solution. Language – telegraphic vs. single words vs. cooing/babbling Children make happy baby sounds that do not mimic the morphemes in any language before 3 months of age. Children between the age of 7-18 months learn what they are not supposed to do from their caregivers. Children between 2 and 3 years of age can comprehend prepositions if a caregiver explains that a bear is hiding under the table. Children between 4 and 5 years of age can remember and perform simple songs. Language acquisition and critical periods - Critical periods: theoretical stage in development when its necessary for children to receive environmental stimulation to promote healthy development. - Language acquisition: the process by which humans learn to understand, perceive, and use language to communicate. Functional fixedness vs. mental sets vs. framing Mental set: person expectation of how to solve something Functional fixedness: The tendency to view an object as only having one function, the one that is commonly used for in neglecting to see other possible use. Bilingualism External changes – sensing – perceiving – deciding- acting – External changes Mental Chronometry: timing of mental events (reaction time) Higher reaction times means slower response Factors influencing reaction times - Complexity - Expectancy - Stimulus-response compatibility - Speed-accuracy trade-off Reaction times relates to efficiency Comparing types of concepts: CH:8 Intelligence What is intelligence? The word intelligence comes from two Latin root words: inter, which means “between,” and Legere, which means “to choose, pick out, read.” The original use of the word referred to the ability to discern true or important information form information that was false or unimportant. Like the modern expression of being able to read between the lines. Cognitive ability The central idea of this approach was to understand cognition as the flow of information between various processors. This model explained memory in terms of how information flowed between different types of processors (i.e., sensory, short-term, and long-term memory) and various methods of processing (i.e., selective attention, maintenance, and elaborative rehearsal). Cognitive area of psychology developed out of the understanding of intelligence using flowcharts and conceptualizations of the mind (e.g., how memory is organized)? Crystallized intelligence vs. fluid intelligence Fluid intelligence: The ability to think flexibly and to handle complex and novel situations. What you use to solve new problems that are not based primarily on knowledge you already possess. Crystallized intelligence: ability to solve problem by applying previously accumulated knowledge, such as when you do a multiplication problem. Standardization vs. reliability vs. validity Biological correlates of intelligence (nature vs. nurture) “Nature via nurture” is a more appropriate understanding of how intelligence is determined: Genetics help define a person’s likely range of intelligence, but the quality of a person’s environment heavily shapes where in that range a person is likely to fall.