Psychology Chapter 5 Quiz

2.2 Psychology as a Science: The Scientific Method

• Identify the problem of interest
• Gather all available information on the topic
• Develop a hypothesis: A testable statement about the relationship between variables
• Design and conduct experiments to test the hypothesis
• Analyze data and formulate conclusions about the results
• Replicate the experiment to confirm the results
• Science is constantly evolving and self-correcting

2.3.1 Naturalistic Observation

• Definition: Researchers conduct research in real-world settings to observe behavior
• Fundamental rule: Researchers do not interfere with the natural behavior of participants
• Operational definition: How researchers measure variables
• Reactivity (Hawthorne Effect): When participants' behavior changes because they know they are being observed
• Advantages: Real-world validity, opportunity to discover unexpected phenomena
• Disadvantages: Lack of control over variables, researchers' biases, the presence of the researcher can influence results

2.3.1.1 Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observations

• Lack control: The inability to control variables that influence behavior
• Researchers bias: Researchers' expectations, theories, and beliefs can influence observations
• The presence: The mere presence of researchers can alter behavior

2.3.4 Surveys

• Definition: Researchers ask a large group of people questions
• Representative sample: A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population
• Random sampling: Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
• Simple random sample: Each member of the population is selected randomly
• Stratified random sample: The population is divided into subgroups, and then random samples are selected from each subgroup
• Advantages: Cheap and easy to administer, can include a diverse range of participants in the study
• Disadvantages: Truthfulness of responses, question wording can influence answers

2.4.1 The Tuskegee Syphilis Study

• What: A study on African American men with and without syphilis
• Why: To learn more about the disease
• How: Observed participants and conducted autopsies on the dead
• Goal: Follow the progression of syphilis
• Result: Prevented the deaths of hundreds of participants and contributed to the spread of syphilis

2.4.2.1 Principle A: Beneficence and Non-maleficence

• Definition: Researchers should strive to do good (beneficence) and avoid causing harm (non-maleficence) to participants
• Psychologists must carefully weigh the benefits of research against the costs to participants and take steps to protect their physical and mental well-being

2.4.2.3 Principle C: Integrity

• Definition: Psychologists should engage in honest and unbiased practices in their science, teaching, and practice

2.4.3 The Practice of Ethical Research

• Institutional Review Board: A committee that reviews research proposals to ensure that ethical principles are followed
• Ethical principles: Minimizing risks, ensuring reasonable benefits, obtaining informed consent, protecting the wellbeing of participants, ensuring confidentiality, using sound research design

2.5 Correlational Research

• Looking to: Identify relationships between two or more variables
• Correlation: A measure of the direction and strength of a relationship
• Scatterplot: A graph that visualizes the relationship between two variables

2.5.2 Strength of Correlation

• Positive and negative values convey direction of the correlation.
• Closer the points are to the line, the stronger the correlation.
• Numerical representation (coefficient) of the relationship ranges from -1 to +1.
• The absolute value indicates the strength of the correlation

2.6.2 Experimental Variables

• Allows researchers to observe, describe, predict, and explain cause-and-effect relationships
• Independent variable (IV): Manipulated variable; what causes a change
• Dependent variable (DV): Measured variable; what is changed by the independent variable
• Extraneous variable (EV): Variables that affect the results but are not of primary interest

2.6.4 Experimental and Control Groups

• Two groups: Experimental group and control group
• Experimental group: Receives the treatment
• Control group: Does not receive the treatment
• Placebo effect: Participants' beliefs about the treatment affect their response

2.7.1 Describing Data: Central Tendency

• Descriptive statistics: Ways to describe data in a simple way
• Mean: Average score
• Median: Middle score in an ordered set
• Mode: Most frequently occurring score

3.1 Introduction: The Smart Conduit

• Nervous system: Interprets events inside and outside the body, processes information
• Brain and spinal cord: Ultimate problem-solvers
• Neuron: Cells that transmit electrical impulses
• Glia cells: Helper cells that provide structural support
• Neural networks: Help us communicate

3.2.1.2 The Soma and Axon Work Together to Send Messages

• Neuron: Basic unit of communication in the nervous system
• Basic structure includes: Cell body (soma), dendrites, axon, axon terminals
• Communication involves an electrochemical process
• Axons convey electrical signals to other neurons
• Terminal buttons release neurotransmitters (NTM's) to communicate with other neurons

3.2.2 How Neurons Transmit Messages: More Details on the Action Potential

• Neurons transmit messages electrochemically
• Different ions (sodium (Na+), chloride (CI-), potassium (K+) ) have different concentrations inside and outside the neuron
• Neuron at rest: Negative inside, positive outside (-70mV)
• Polarized: Negative inside
• Inhibitory message: Makes the inside more negative (hyperpolarization), less likely to fire
• Excitatory message: Makes the inside less negative (depolarization), more likely to fire, reaching threshold to fire (-50mV)
• Neurotransmitters released at the synapse

3.2.2 More details on the action potential

• The electrical charge reaches -50mV, the threshold of excitation, causing the neuron to fire
• Sodium channels open, allowing sodium ions to rush inside, depolarizing the neuron
• When the electrical charge reaches about -50mV, it reaches the threshold of excitation, causing the neuron to fire
• Potassium channels open, allowing potassium ions to rush outside, re-polarizing the neuron
• The neuron returns to its resting state.

7.1 Introduction to the Scientific Study of Learning

• Learning: Change in behavior not due to experience
• Behavior: Observable actions (words, gestures, responses)
• Innate: Behaviors present at birth
• Reflexes: Automatic responses to stimuli
• Pavlovian conditioning: Associating two events, creating new responses
• Operant conditioning: Learning what happens when performing behaviors

7.2 Pavlovian Conditioning

• Associating two events
• Stimulus: A feature that evokes a response
• Unconditional stimulus (UCS): Naturally produces a response
• Unconditional response (UCR): Natural response to the UCS
• Conditional stimulus (CS): The stimulus that is learned through association
• Conditional response (CR): The learned response to the CS

7.3 Reinforcement Contingencies

• Reinforcer: A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour repeating
• Reinforcement types: Positive (adding a desirable consequence), negative (removing an undesirable consequence)
• Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of behavior repeating
• Types of punishment: Positive (adding an unpleasant consequence), negative (removing a desirable consequence)

7.3.7 Scheduling Consequences

• Continuous reinforcement: Reinforcement after every correct behavior
• Intermittent reinforcement: Reinforcement after some, but not all, correct behaviors
• Schedules of reinforcement: Fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-interval

7.5.2 Bandura and Social Learning

• Social learning: Learning by observing others
• Latent learning: Learning that isn't immediately exhibited but is shown later
• Biological constraints: Limits on how we can learn through experience.

8.1 Kinds of Long-Term Memory

• Definition: Long-term memory stores information for extended periods
• Capacity: Believed to be limitless
• Duration: Couple of minutes to a lifetime
• Types: Episodic (personal experiences), semantic (facts, knowledge).

8.2 Encoding Memories: Prolonging the Present

• Encoding: Converting information into a usable format for storage in memory
• Storage: Keeping information in memory
• Retrieval: Retrieving stored information from memory

8.3.2 Transfer to Long-Term Memory

• Automatic processing: Unintentional acquisition of information
• Effortful processing: Intentional strategies for encoding information, such as rehearsal

8.2.1 Sensory Memory: Icons and Echoes

• Definition: Initial, brief storage of sensory information
• Capacity: Believed to be limitless
• Duration: Very brief (a fraction of a second)
• Types: Iconic memory (visual), echoic memory (auditory), haptic memory (touch)

8.2.2 The Working Memory Model

• Definition: Short-term memory that actively processes information
• Capacity: Limited (7-9 items)
• Duration: Temporary (12-30 seconds)
• Components: Phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, central executive

8.3.1 Kinds of Long-Term Memory

• Definition: Long-term memory stores information for extended periods
• Capacity: Believed to be limitless
• Duration: Couple of minutes to a lifetime
• Types: Episodic (personal experiences), semantic (facts, knowledge)

8.3.2 Transfer to Long-Term Memory

• Automatic processing: Unintentional acquisition of information
• Effortful processing: Intentional strategies for encoding information, such as rehearsal