Psychology Chapter 5 Quiz
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What is the first step in the scientific method?

  • Develop a hypothesis
  • Identify the problem (correct)
  • Analyze data and formulate conclusions
  • Gather information

    • Which of the following is NOT a key reason for conducting replication studies?

  • To verify previous conclusions
  • To increase confidence in results
  • To discover new theories (correct)
  • To test the reliability of findings

    • In naturalistic observation, what fundamental rule must researchers follow?

  • To perform experiments in a lab
  • To interact with participants
  • To document all observations
  • To refrain from interfering (correct)

    • What does the term 'operational definition' refer to in research?

    <p>How a variable is measured</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes the Hawthorne Effect?

    <p>Participants alter their behavior because they are being observed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant disadvantage of naturalistic observations?

    <p>Researchers lack control over the environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best captures a fundamental aspect of science?

    <p>Science evolves and is self-correcting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a hypothesis need to be considered scientifically valid?

    <p>It must be a tentative statement and falsifiable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the initial learning phase where the dog begins to associate the bell with food?

    <p>Acquisition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following concepts refers to when a previously conditioned response is no longer produced?

    <p>Extinction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of classical conditioning, what does the bell represent after learning has occurred?

    <p>Conditioned stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of timing in classical conditioning?

    <p>Timing requires the food to be presented immediately after the bell.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of stimulus generalization?

    <p>Salivating at the sound of multiple bells after hearing one.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon occurs when a conditioned response reappears after a period of extinction has taken place?

    <p>Spontaneous recovery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can stimulus discrimination be characterized?

    <p>Only fearing the dog that specifically bit you.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does higher order conditioning involve in the context of classical conditioning?

    <p>Training the dog to salivate at a new stimulus that is paired with the original conditioned stimulus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of reinforcer involves the removal of an unpleasant stimulus?

    <p>Escape negative reinforcer.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is considered important for successful classical conditioning?

    <p>A short gap between stimulus presentations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is true about primary reinforcers?

    <p>They are inherently enjoyable stimuli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the initial unlearned reaction that the dog has to the food?

    <p>Unconditioned response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an avoidance negative reinforcer?

    <p>Preventing a headache by taking pain medication beforehand.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do reinforcers generally affect behavior?

    <p>They increase the likelihood of behavior being repeated.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes a conditioned reinforcer?

    <p>A previously neutral stimulus that becomes reinforcing through association.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the potential negative impact of stimulus generalization?

    <p>It can create an unreasonable bias against similar factors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is necessary for punishment to effectively decrease a behavior?

    <p>It must occur immediately after the behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which schedule of reinforcement produces the highest level of responses?

    <p>Variable ratio</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a fixed ratio schedule, what is a key characteristic?

    <p>A specific number of behaviors must occur before reinforcement is given.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is consistent reinforcement less effective for maintaining behavior over time?

    <p>It leads to quicker extinction of the behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of intermittent reinforcement?

    <p>It reinforces behaviors at unpredictable times.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between fixed and variable ratio reinforcement?

    <p>Fixed ratio requires a specific number of responses, while variable ratio does not.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the partial extinction effect?

    <p>It refers to the increase in behavior after intermittent reinforcement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of reinforcement schedule would be best for teaching a new behavior?

    <p>Continuous</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of positive reinforcement in operant conditioning?

    <p>To produce a consequence that increases the likelihood of behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes negative punishment?

    <p>Removing a desirable stimulus as a consequence of behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes negative reinforcement in operant conditioning?

    <p>It involves removing an adverse consequence to increase behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are immediate reinforcers significant in learning?

    <p>They provide reinforcement right after the behavior occurs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major reason psychologists advise against the use of punishment?

    <p>It does not instruct on what appropriate behavior to choose.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about generalized conditioned reinforcers is true?

    <p>They acquire their reinforcing ability through association with primary reinforcers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Skinner advocate regarding reinforcement?

    <p>Employing positive reinforcement whenever feasible.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of punishment as a behavioral strategy?

    <p>It often leads to power struggles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of a fixed interval schedule?

    <p>Reinforcement takes place after a specific amount of time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of using a variable interval schedule of reinforcement?

    <p>It leads to a steady but slower rate of responses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is vicarious learning?

    <p>Learning by observation of others' experiences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which element is NOT one of Bandura's four essential cognitive processes for imitation?

    <p>Reinforcement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do mirror neurons contribute to learning according to Bandura's model?

    <p>They activate both when performing and observing a behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of learning is demonstrated when infants begin to imitate facial expressions?

    <p>Social learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes the concept of motivation in Bandura's model of learning?

    <p>Motivation must be present for the behavior to be enacted.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which interval schedule produces the lowest rate of responses?

    <p>Fixed interval schedule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    2.2 Psychology as a Science: The Scientific Method

    • Identify the problem of interest
    • Gather all available information on the topic
    • Develop a hypothesis: A testable statement about the relationship between variables
    • Design and conduct experiments to test the hypothesis
    • Analyze data and formulate conclusions about the results
    • Replicate the experiment to confirm the results
    • Science is constantly evolving and self-correcting

    2.3.1 Naturalistic Observation

    • Definition: Researchers conduct research in real-world settings to observe behavior
    • Fundamental rule: Researchers do not interfere with the natural behavior of participants
    • Operational definition: How researchers measure variables
    • Reactivity (Hawthorne Effect): When participants' behavior changes because they know they are being observed
    • Advantages: Real-world validity, opportunity to discover unexpected phenomena
    • Disadvantages: Lack of control over variables, researchers' biases, the presence of the researcher can influence results

    2.3.1.1 Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observations

    • Lack control: The inability to control variables that influence behavior
    • Researchers bias: Researchers' expectations, theories, and beliefs can influence observations
    • The presence: The mere presence of researchers can alter behavior

    2.3.4 Surveys

    • Definition: Researchers ask a large group of people questions
    • Representative sample: A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population
    • Random sampling: Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
    • Simple random sample: Each member of the population is selected randomly
    • Stratified random sample: The population is divided into subgroups, and then random samples are selected from each subgroup
    • Advantages: Cheap and easy to administer, can include a diverse range of participants in the study
    • Disadvantages: Truthfulness of responses, question wording can influence answers

    2.4.1 The Tuskegee Syphilis Study

    • What: A study on African American men with and without syphilis
    • Why: To learn more about the disease
    • How: Observed participants and conducted autopsies on the dead
    • Goal: Follow the progression of syphilis
    • Result: Prevented the deaths of hundreds of participants and contributed to the spread of syphilis

    2.4.2.1 Principle A: Beneficence and Non-maleficence

    • Definition: Researchers should strive to do good (beneficence) and avoid causing harm (non-maleficence) to participants
    • Psychologists must carefully weigh the benefits of research against the costs to participants and take steps to protect their physical and mental well-being

    2.4.2.3 Principle C: Integrity

    • Definition: Psychologists should engage in honest and unbiased practices in their science, teaching, and practice

    2.4.3 The Practice of Ethical Research

    • Institutional Review Board: A committee that reviews research proposals to ensure that ethical principles are followed
    • Ethical principles: Minimizing risks, ensuring reasonable benefits, obtaining informed consent, protecting the wellbeing of participants, ensuring confidentiality, using sound research design

    2.5 Correlational Research

    • Looking to: Identify relationships between two or more variables
    • Correlation: A measure of the direction and strength of a relationship
    • Scatterplot: A graph that visualizes the relationship between two variables

    2.5.2 Strength of Correlation

    • Positive and negative values convey direction of the correlation.
    • Closer the points are to the line, the stronger the correlation.
    • Numerical representation (coefficient) of the relationship ranges from -1 to +1.
    • The absolute value indicates the strength of the correlation

    2.6.2 Experimental Variables

    • Allows researchers to observe, describe, predict, and explain cause-and-effect relationships
    • Independent variable (IV): Manipulated variable; what causes a change
    • Dependent variable (DV): Measured variable; what is changed by the independent variable
    • Extraneous variable (EV): Variables that affect the results but are not of primary interest

    2.6.4 Experimental and Control Groups

    • Two groups: Experimental group and control group
    • Experimental group: Receives the treatment
    • Control group: Does not receive the treatment
    • Placebo effect: Participants' beliefs about the treatment affect their response

    2.7.1 Describing Data: Central Tendency

    • Descriptive statistics: Ways to describe data in a simple way
    • Mean: Average score
    • Median: Middle score in an ordered set
    • Mode: Most frequently occurring score

    3.1 Introduction: The Smart Conduit

    • Nervous system: Interprets events inside and outside the body, processes information
    • Brain and spinal cord: Ultimate problem-solvers
    • Neuron: Cells that transmit electrical impulses
    • Glia cells: Helper cells that provide structural support
    • Neural networks: Help us communicate

    3.2.1.2 The Soma and Axon Work Together to Send Messages

    • Neuron: Basic unit of communication in the nervous system
    • Basic structure includes: Cell body (soma), dendrites, axon, axon terminals
    • Communication involves an electrochemical process
    • Axons convey electrical signals to other neurons
    • Terminal buttons release neurotransmitters (NTM's) to communicate with other neurons

    3.2.2 How Neurons Transmit Messages: More Details on the Action Potential

    • Neurons transmit messages electrochemically
    • Different ions (sodium (Na+), chloride (CI-), potassium (K+) ) have different concentrations inside and outside the neuron
    • Neuron at rest: Negative inside, positive outside (-70mV)
    • Polarized: Negative inside
    • Inhibitory message: Makes the inside more negative (hyperpolarization), less likely to fire
    • Excitatory message: Makes the inside less negative (depolarization), more likely to fire, reaching threshold to fire (-50mV)
    • Neurotransmitters released at the synapse

    3.2.2 More details on the action potential

    • The electrical charge reaches -50mV, the threshold of excitation, causing the neuron to fire
    • Sodium channels open, allowing sodium ions to rush inside, depolarizing the neuron
    • When the electrical charge reaches about -50mV, it reaches the threshold of excitation, causing the neuron to fire
    • Potassium channels open, allowing potassium ions to rush outside, re-polarizing the neuron
    • The neuron returns to its resting state.

    7.1 Introduction to the Scientific Study of Learning

    • Learning: Change in behavior not due to experience
    • Behavior: Observable actions (words, gestures, responses)
    • Innate: Behaviors present at birth
    • Reflexes: Automatic responses to stimuli
    • Pavlovian conditioning: Associating two events, creating new responses
    • Operant conditioning: Learning what happens when performing behaviors

    7.2 Pavlovian Conditioning

    • Associating two events
    • Stimulus: A feature that evokes a response
    • Unconditional stimulus (UCS): Naturally produces a response
    • Unconditional response (UCR): Natural response to the UCS
    • Conditional stimulus (CS): The stimulus that is learned through association
    • Conditional response (CR): The learned response to the CS

    7.3 Reinforcement Contingencies

    • Reinforcer: A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour repeating
    • Reinforcement types: Positive (adding a desirable consequence), negative (removing an undesirable consequence)
    • Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of behavior repeating
    • Types of punishment: Positive (adding an unpleasant consequence), negative (removing a desirable consequence)

    7.3.7 Scheduling Consequences

    • Continuous reinforcement: Reinforcement after every correct behavior
    • Intermittent reinforcement: Reinforcement after some, but not all, correct behaviors
    • Schedules of reinforcement: Fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-interval

    7.5.2 Bandura and Social Learning

    • Social learning: Learning by observing others
    • Latent learning: Learning that isn't immediately exhibited but is shown later
    • Biological constraints: Limits on how we can learn through experience.

    8.1 Kinds of Long-Term Memory

    • Definition: Long-term memory stores information for extended periods
    • Capacity: Believed to be limitless
    • Duration: Couple of minutes to a lifetime
    • Types: Episodic (personal experiences), semantic (facts, knowledge).

    8.2 Encoding Memories: Prolonging the Present

    • Encoding: Converting information into a usable format for storage in memory
    • Storage: Keeping information in memory
    • Retrieval: Retrieving stored information from memory

    8.3.2 Transfer to Long-Term Memory

    • Automatic processing: Unintentional acquisition of information
    • Effortful processing: Intentional strategies for encoding information, such as rehearsal

    8.2.1 Sensory Memory: Icons and Echoes

    • Definition: Initial, brief storage of sensory information
    • Capacity: Believed to be limitless
    • Duration: Very brief (a fraction of a second)
    • Types: Iconic memory (visual), echoic memory (auditory), haptic memory (touch)

    8.2.2 The Working Memory Model

    • Definition: Short-term memory that actively processes information
    • Capacity: Limited (7-9 items)
    • Duration: Temporary (12-30 seconds)
    • Components: Phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, central executive

    8.3.1 Kinds of Long-Term Memory

    • Definition: Long-term memory stores information for extended periods
    • Capacity: Believed to be limitless
    • Duration: Couple of minutes to a lifetime
    • Types: Episodic (personal experiences), semantic (facts, knowledge)

    8.3.2 Transfer to Long-Term Memory

    • Automatic processing: Unintentional acquisition of information
    • Effortful processing: Intentional strategies for encoding information, such as rehearsal

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    Description

    Test your knowledge on the principles of the scientific method and classical conditioning with this quiz. Explore concepts such as operational definitions, the Hawthorne Effect, and stimulus generalization. Challenge yourself to understand the fundamental aspects of research and observation.

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