Chapter 2
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Questions and Answers

What is the most accurate description of standard deviation?

  • A measure of the spread of data around the mean. (correct)
  • The middle score in a set of data.
  • The average difference between each score and the mean.
  • The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a dataset.

    • What does a p-value less than 0.05 generally indicate?

  • The data is normally distributed.
  • The results are statistically significant and likely not due to random chance. (correct)
  • The results are insignificant and likely due to random chance.
  • The data is not normally distributed.

    • What is the key difference between a linear relationship and a non-linear relationship in scatter diagrams?

  • In linear relationships, as one variable increases, the other variable either consistently increases or decreases. In non-linear relationships, the relationship between the variables is not consistent. (correct)
  • Linear relationships are always positive while non-linear relationships can be positive or negative.
  • Linear relationships are easier to interpret than non-linear relationships.
  • Linear relationships use a scatter diagram while non-linear relationships use a histogram.

    • Which of these is NOT a measure of central tendency?

    <p>Standard Deviation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these is NOT a step in the scientific method?

    <p>Create a marketing plan (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a perfectly normal distribution, what relationship exists between the mean, median, and mode?

    <p>They all occupy the same location. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the relationship between a theory and a hypothesis?

    <p>A hypothesis is a specific prediction derived from a broader theory. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does inferential statistics enable researchers to do?

    <p>To draw conclusions about a population based on data from a sample. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of classical conditioning, what is a neutral stimulus?

    <p>A stimulus that does not elicit any response. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of hypothesis testing in scientific research?

    <p>To determine whether there is enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of a scatter diagram?

    <p>To visualize the relationship between two variables. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a good scientific hypothesis?

    <p>It should be stated in a way that is easily understood by the general public. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a study designed to test the effectiveness of a new drug, what would be the purpose of a control group?

    <p>To provide a baseline against which the effects of the drug can be compared. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements best reflects the two essential beliefs of science?

    <p>The universe operates according to predictable laws that can be investigated and tested. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of operational definitions in scientific research?

    <p>Providing a common understanding of how variables are measured and manipulated. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it important for a hypothesis to be falsifiable?

    <p>It allows for the possibility of disproving the hypothesis through empirical evidence. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between a quantitative variable and a qualitative variable?

    <p>Quantitative variables are measured with numbers, while qualitative variables are described with words. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of an operational definition?

    <p>Observations of the number of times a person calls another person a name. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the null hypothesis in research?

    <p>The null hypothesis is a statement of no difference between groups. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the dependent variable in the following research question: "Does listening to classical music improve students' test scores?"

    <p>Test scores (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is the best definition of an alternative hypothesis?

    <p>The alternative hypothesis is the claim that the researcher hopes to prove true. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a quantitative variable?

    <p>It varies in kind. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of an operational definition?

    <p>To measure a concept in a specific way. (E)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of descriptive research?

    <p>To observe, collect, and record data (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between a population and a sample in research?

    <p>A population is the entire group of interest to researchers, while a sample is a portion of the population selected for the study. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is data analyzed in the research process?

    <p>By generating summaries about data samples using descriptive statistics, such as averages and medians. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of Step 3, 'Prepare for testing,' in the research process?

    <p>To select a research method, choose participants, and collect data. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a type of descriptive research?

    <p>Experiments (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the goal of experimental research?

    <p>To identify cause and effect relationships between variables. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a conceptual definition?

    <p>A person is considered bullied when they experience repeated aggressive behaviour intended to hurt by a person or group of people. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Flashcards

    Science

    A systematic approach to understanding the universe through observation and experimentation.

    Natural Laws

    The principles that govern the universe and can be discovered and tested.

    Hypothesis

    A testable prediction derived from a theory, stating the expected outcome of a study.

    Theory

    A set of statements describing general principles about the relationship between variables.

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    Classical Conditioning

    A learning process that creates associations between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.

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    Conditioned Response

    The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus after conditioning has occurred.

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    Null Hypothesis

    The claim that no effect or relationship exists in the study population.

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    Data

    Observations and information collected during research for analysis.

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    Mean

    The average of a set of numbers.

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    Median

    The middle value in a sorted sequence of numbers.

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    Mode

    The value that appears most frequently in a data set.

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    Standard Deviation

    Measure of the average distance of each score from the mean.

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    Scatter Diagram

    A graph that shows the relationship between two variables.

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    Correlation Coefficient

    Statistical measure indicating strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.

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    P-value

    Probability that the observed data occurred by random chance.

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    Inferential Statistics

    Allows predictions about a population based on sample data.

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    Alternative Hypothesis

    The expected claim stating there is a difference.

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    Variable

    Any characteristic that can be measured or counted.

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    Quantitative Variable

    Variables with assigned numbers that vary in amount.

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    Qualitative Variable

    Variables that are categorized without numerical values.

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    Independent Variable (IV)

    The variable that is manipulated in an experiment.

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    Dependent Variable (DV)

    The variable that is measured or affected in an experiment.

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    Operational Definition

    Definition based on measurements and observations.

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    Self-report surveys

    Surveys where individuals report their own experiences or behaviors.

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    Conceptual definition

    Describes what a concept is in general terms.

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    Population

    The entire group of interest for research purposes.

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    Sample

    A portion of the population selected for the study.

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    Descriptive research

    Research focused on observing and recording data.

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    Experimental research

    Research that manipulates variables to identify cause and effect.

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    Descriptive statistics

    Summarizes and describes features of a data set.

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    Study Notes

    Psychology as a Science

    • Science involves two core beliefs: the universe operates according to natural laws, and these laws are discoverable and testable.
    • The scientific method includes:
      • Asking a question: Identifying questions of interest and reviewing relevant literature.
      • Formulating a hypothesis: Developing a testable prediction; hypotheses must be operationally defined.
      • Theory: A set of statements describing general principles about how variables relate.
    • Classical conditioning:
      • A learning process involving associating one stimulus with another.
      • Key variables include a neutral stimulus, an unconditioned stimulus, and the resulting response.
      • Pairing the neutral stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus creates a conditioned response.

    Hypothesis Testing

    • Hypothesis: A prediction based on a theory, stated in terms of the study design.
    • Data: Collected observations.
    • Hypothesis testing compares a sample to a wider population or to different groups within the sample.
    • Null hypothesis: Assumes there is no effect or no difference between groups.
    • Alternative hypothesis: Assumes there is an effect or a difference between groups.

    Variables

    • Variables: Characteristics, numbers or quantities that can be measured or counted.
    • Types of variables:
      • Quantitative: Variables that are measured numerically, varying in degree (e.g., age, height).
      • Qualitative: Variables that are measured in categories or kinds (e.g., car model, color).
      • Independent variable (IV): The variable that is manipulated in a study.
      • Dependent variable (DV): The variable that is measured.

    Operational Definitions

    • Operational definitions specify precisely how a concept is measured. This allows other researchers to evaluate the methods used and potentially replicate a study.
    • Examples include:
      • How might bullying be measured?
        • Observing the number of times a person is called a name.
        • Self-report surveys on the frequency of bullying behavior.
        • Self-reports on individual behaviors and actions.

    Methods of Data Collection and Research

    • Population: The entire group of interest.
    • Sample: A portion of the population selected for study. Samples should be representative of the population.
    • Descriptive research: Methods including case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys. The goal is to observe, record and describe phenomena. This approach often leads to further research, such as developing a theory that could further be tested.
    • Experimental research: Methods involving manipulation and control of variables to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

    Data Analysis

    • Descriptive statistics: Summarizing and describing data, including measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) and measures of variability (standard deviation).
    • Inferential statistics: Drawing conclusions about a population based on data from a sample; includes comparing means of groups (to see if the difference is statistically significant). Inferring predictions from data.
    • Correlation coefficients: These demonstrate the strength and direction of a relationship between variables.  -Positive correlations: both variables increase together. -Negative correlations: one variable increases while the other decreases.
    • Non-linear relationships: As one variable changes, the other may not follow a straight-line relationship.
    • P-value: The probability that the observed results occurred by chance. A low p-value typically indicates statistically significant findings.

    Ethical Considerations

    • Human participants in research must be informed of all ethical risks and must consent to participate freely.
    • The study must meet the highest ethical standards through multiple steps including scientific review and replication.

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    Related Documents

    Ch 2 Psychology as a Science PDF Notes

    Description

    Test your understanding of the principles of psychology as a science, including the scientific method and classical conditioning. This quiz covers hypothesis testing and the key components involved in psychological research. Dive into the foundational concepts that shape the field of psychology.

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