Psy 1101 Final Exam Notes PDF

Chapter 2: Methodes =================== 2.2 Psychology as a Science: The Scientific Method -------------------------------------------------- **[The scientific method:]** 1. **Identify the problem**: Identify the problem of interest. 2. **Gather information**: Review the scientific literature...

Chapter 2: Methodes =================== 2.2 Psychology as a Science: The Scientific Method -------------------------------------------------- **[The scientific method:]** 1. **Identify the problem**: Identify the problem of interest. 2. **Gather information**: Review the scientific literature and examine existing theories of behavior. Try to find all the information available about your problem of interest. 3. **Develop a hypothesis**: Develop a hypothesis/educated prediction about what you think the outcome of the experiment will be. Tentative statement about the relationship between one or more variables.   - Must be falsifiable \--\> Must be able to test and falsify the hypothesis. 4. **Design and conduct experiments:** Develop an experiment to test the hypothesis and collect data. 5. **Analyze data and formulate conclusions**: Analyze your findings and come up with a conclusion. The conclusion you come up with is not necessarily correct. 6. **Restart the process**: Replicate/redo the experiment and see what happens. **[Replication:]** We must replicate our studies with different sets of subjects. Our confidence grows if we repeat and get similar results. **[Evolution:]** Science is constantly evolving, Science is self-correcting. 2.3.1 Naturalistic Observation ------------------------------ **[Definition:]** The researchers leave their labs and go do their research in the real world. It is ecologically valid because the observations are a product of behavior. **[A fundamental rule:]** The researcher must not interfere in any way. They are just to observe. **[Operational definition:]** How a researcher decides to measure a variable. **[Reactivity (Hawthorne Effect):]** When people feel like they are being observed or know they are being studied their performance improves. **[Advantages:]** - **Real:** It does not get more real than this. We move away from artificiality of the lab. - **Sometimes this is the only way:** Sometimes this is the only way to get the information we need. - **Discovery:** By going into the real world to do research, we may discover things that we may never discover in the lab 2.3.1.1 Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observations -------------------------------------------------- **[Disadvantages:]** - **Lack control:** Researchers lack control over the environment and the many different factors that can affect behavior. So, we may not be sure of what is influencing behavior. - **Researchers bias:** No matter how hard researchers try to be objective they still may be influenced by their own theories, beliefs, and expectations. They may end up hearing what they want to hear and seeing what they want to see. matter how hard researchers try to be objective they still may be influenced by their own theories, beliefs, and expectations. They may end up hearing what they want to hear and seeing what they want to see.  - **The presence:** Even though researchers do not interfere, still the mere presence of the researcher can influence an effect and change the observed behaviors. Solution is that researchers must blend in. 2.3.4 Surveys ------------- **[Definition:]** Researchers ask a large sample of people questions that they would like the answer to. It is impossible to survey every single person in a population. The solution is to extract a sample from the population. **[Representative sample:]** We need to make sure the characteristics of our sample closely reflect the characteristics of our population. **[Why:]** We must have it because we use that sample to generalize to the population. **[How:]** Researchers use random sampling in order to obtain a random sample. **[Random Sampling:]** Every single person in the population of interest has an equal chance to be in the survey. Chance, only chance and nothing but chance determines who ends up in the sample. **[Simple random sample:]** Go into the population of interest and extract a sample using random sampling **[Stratified random sample:]** We take the population we are interested in, and we break it down into the different groups we are interested in. Then we go into every one of those groups and extract a sample from them. **[Advantages:]** - ***Cheap***: Very cheap - ***Easy to***: Very easy to administer - ***Includes***: We can include people that aren't usually included in research. Ex. Illiterate people, homebound people, etc. - ***Sometimes it is the only way***: Sometimes it is the only way to know something. **[Disadvantages:]** - ***Truth***: Just because you ask something, it doesn't mean you'll get the truth. - ***Easily***: The answers we get can be easily influenced by how we word a question (Word influence). The results we get can be easily affected by the characteristics of the person asking the question. **[Response bias: ]** The tendency for people to answer the question the way they feel they are expected to answer or in a systematic way that are otherwise inaccurate. **[Acquiescent response bias:]** The tendency for participants to agree or respond "yes" to all questions regardless of their actual opinions. **[Socially desirable bias:]** Participants respond to questions in way that would be seen as acceptable by others. **[Illusory superiority:]** The tendency to describe our own behavior as better than average. **[Key survey-related bias:]** Who was willing to participate in this survey, and were those who did representative of the rest of the population? **[Volunteer bias:]** A bias whereby only a motivated fraction pf a population respond to a survey or participate in research. 2.4.1 The Tuskegee Syphilis Study --------------------------------- **[What:]** A study done on over 600 African American men (half with and half without the disease). **[Why:]** Learn more about syphilis. **[How:]** Observing the participants and then conducting autopsies on the dead. **[Goal:]** Follow the time course syphilis. (not to actually treat them) **[Result:]** The preventative death of hundreds of participants and needless contribution to the spread of syphilis. 2.4.2.1 Principle A: Beneficence and Non-maleficence ---------------------------------------------------- **[Definition:]** Research should strive to do good (beneficence) and avoid creating experiments that can intentionally harm (maleficence) participants. **[Psychologists must:]** Carefully weigh the benefits of the research against the costs that participants may experience and put in place safeguards to protect the mental and physical well-being of research participants. 2.4.2.3 Principle C: Integrity ------------------------------ **[Definition:]** Psychologists should engage in accurate, honest, and non-biased practices in the science, teaching, and practice of psychology. 2.4.3 The Practice of Ethical Research -------------------------------------- **[Institutional Review Board:]** Committee of independent people who review and assess if the research project will be carried out in a way that is consistent with the general ethical principles. **[Ethical principles:]** - The proposed study will use sound research design. - Risks associated with participation in the study are minimized and reasonable. - The benefits of the research outweigh any potential risks. - All participants can make an informed decision to participate in the study, and that decision may be withdrawn at any time without consequence to the participant. - Safeguards are in place too protect the well-being of participants. - All data collected will be kept private and confidential. **[Informed consent:]** The process whereby researchers work with participants to describe essential details of the study. 2.5 Correlational Research -------------------------- **[Looking to:]** Identify relationships that exist between two or more variables. **[Correlation:]** A measure (r) that capture the direction and strength of a relationship between variables. **[Scatterplot:]** Type of graph that has one variable on the x-axis and one on the y-axis and provides a visual representation between variables. - Strong = points cluster tightly together in a line 2.5.2 Strength of Correlation ----------------------------- **[Positive and negative: ]** **Values convey the direction of a correlation.** **[Do not:]** **Indicate how closely the two variables are related. [ ]** **[Closer:]** **Closer the data points are to the line, the stronger the correlation is.** **[Correlation coefficient:]** **Numerical representation of the strength of the relationships between variables(r). Ranges from -1 to +1.** **[Absolute value:]** **The magnitude of strength of the correlation.** **[Direction:]** **The +/- sign is just the direction that the line goes in. It is unrelated to the strength.** **[Strong:]** **Gets stronger the closer the value is to 1.0. (1.4 is not stronger than 1.0)** 2.6.2 Experimental Variables ---------------------------- **[Allows us:]** Experimental research allows us to observe, describe, predict and [explain]. **[It is the only:]** Type of research that allows us to talk about cause-and-effect relationships. [**Why**:] 1. Researcher manipulates independent variable of interest. 2. Researcher controls all other independent variables that could interfere with his results. **[Independent variable (IV): ]** Variable that causes change in another variable. Either manipulated or controlled. Always comes first. What we think will cause a change in our experiment. Cause. **[Dependent variable (DV): ]** Variable that is being changed, influenced, affected by the independent variable. Researcher measures this. Effect. **[Extraneous variable (EV):]** Also known as confounding variables. Variables that are note the focus of the study, but that may influence the outcome of research is not controlled. [**Can be done**: ] In the lab and in the real world. **[Field experiment:]** Done in the real world. Here researcher. Can manipulate and control variables 2.6.4 Experimental and Control Groups ------------------------------------- **[Two groups:]** Creating two groups as a bias for our comparison. **[Experimental group:]** Group that receives the treatment of interest. **[Control group:]** Treated nearly identical to the experimental group but it does not receive **[Placebo effect:]** The brain will trick patients into thinking the drug they are taking is working even if it's fake. 2.7.1 Describing Data: Central Tendency --------------------------------------- **[Descriptive statistics:]** Collection of ways to describe the data in the simplest way possible. **[Central tendency:]** Three types **Mean**: The average score **Median**: The middle score in an ordered set of data. **Mode**: The most frequently occurring number in a data set. Chapter 3 -- Biology and Neuroscience ===================================== 3.1 Introduction: The Smart Conduit ----------------------------------- **[Nervous system:]** The main interpreter of both events in your body and those in the outer world. A maze of complex cellular networks that relay and process information. Its overall purpose is to create behavior. It also helps you to make sense of the things around you and make decisions about what to do next. **[Brain and spinal cord:]** The ultimate problem solvers that send and receive information to and from all areas of your body. **[Neuron:]** Cells that transmit electrical impulses. **[Glia cells:]** Several different kinds of helper cells that assist neurons in their role as the brain's communicators and provide structural support. **[Neural:]** Relating to the nerve or nervous system **[Neural networks:]** Helps us communicate with one another through movement and sound. 3.2.1.2 The Soma and Axon Work Together to Send Messages -------------------------------------------------------- **[Neuron:]** - **Basic unit**: Basic unit of communication in the nervous system. - **In a nutshell**: - *The communication*: It is an electrochemical process. - *When*: A neuron decides to communicate with another neuron, it fires an action potential (AP). - *Action potential/neural impulse/electrical impulse*: they all mean the same thing - *Ultimately*: The action potential is going to lead to the release of NTM. - *Neurotransmitters*: Chemicals that neurons use to send out messages to other neurons (NTM). - **Neurons come**: In a variety of shapes and sizes. - **Basic structure**: Neurons have roughly the same structure. - *Cell body → soma*: Contains the nucleus and the DNA. Manufactures everything the neuron needs to survive and thrive. Contains the cells organell's. - *Dendrites*: - Two main functions:\ 1. Receive messages from other neurons.\ 2. They increase the surface area of the soma without taking up much space. - *Axon hillock*: The intersection between the soma and an axon. Where the axon begins. - *Axon*: When the neuron fires and produces an AP, it is the axon that will carry it. AP travels all the way\ down the axon. - *Axon branches/ Axon terminals*: Axon branches off into axon terminals. - *Terminal buttons (vesicles)*: Little nubs at the ends of axon branches. They release the NTM's. - *Myelin sheath*: Some axons in the NS are covered in a myelin sheath. White fatty substance that traps around some axons. Provides insulation Speeds up transmission of info. - *Nodes of Ranvier*: Gaps in the myelin that allow ions to enter into the axon and change the charge inside. - *Synapse:* This is where neurons meet to communicate. - *Synaptic cleft/gap*: Tiny gap between two neurons at the synapse.\ Presynaptic neuron is the neuron that sends out messages.\ Postsynaptic neuron is the neuron that receives messages. - **5 milliseconds**: Communications between occurs within about 5 milliseconds. - **80-90 billion**: 80-90 billion neurons that connect to each other. 3.2.2 How Neurons Transmit Messages: More Details on the Action Potential ------------------------------------------------------------------------- **[80% Water:]** - **Intracellular fluid**: Inside the neuron. - **Extracellular fluid**: Outside the neuron. **[Dissolved chemicals, such as:]** - Na+ Sodium I. - Cl - Chloride I. - K+ Potassium I. **[These ions:]**\ They are found inside and outside the neuron in different concentrations.\ **[Neuron at rest:]** - Neuron is not firing, communicating, not producing an AP. - More negative ions inside the neuron. (Inside = negatively charged) - More positive ions outside the neuron. (Outside = positively charged) - -70mV - Polarized **[Even at rest:]**\ The neuron receives messages from other neurons.\ **[2 types of messages:]** - **Inhibitory**: - *Instruct the neuron*: Not to fire not to communicate. - *These messages are going to*: The inside is going to become more negative than at rest. - *Ex*: from -70 mv to -77 mv as a result, the neuron is less likely to fire. - *The membrane is said to be*: Hyperpolarized. - **Excitatory**: - *Instruct the neuron to*: Fire, communicate, produce an action potential. - *These messages are going to*: Change the concentration of ions. - *Less negative*: Inside of neuron will be less negative than at rest. Ex: from - 70mV to - 63mV - *As a result*: the neuron is more likely to fire. - *The membrane is said to be*: Depolarized. - **When?:** When electric charge inside the neuron is about -50 mV (threshold of excitation). **[Rules:]** - **When a neuron receives inhibitory messages**: - Chloride (Cl-) channels open. *What happens when they open?* - Some chloride ions move inside the neuron. (Influx) - When they move in, that increases the number of negative ions inside the neuron. - As a result, the inside of the neuron becomes more negative (more negatively charged). - The membrane is said to be hyperpolarized and the neuron is less likely to fire. (again there is more to the process but for the purposes of this course that is all you need to know. - **When a neuron receives excitatory messages** - the sodium channels open.\ *What happens when they open?* - Some sodium ions move inside the neuron. (Influx) - This increases the number of positive ions found inside the neuron. - As a result, the inside of the neuron becomes less negative (less negatively charged) - As you know this means that the membrane is depolarized and the neuron is more likely\ to fire. - If enough sodium ions enter the neuron for the electrical charge inside the neuron to reach -50mv (threshold of excitation\> explained in the lecture) the neuron will fire. - Once the neuron has fired, it needs to go back to its resting potential before it can fire again when prompted. How does the neuron return to the resting potential.? After (key word) the sodium channels have opened and sodium ions had entered the cell, potassium (K+) channels open. - **What happens when potassium channel open?** - Potassium ions start leaving the neuron (Efflux) Keep it simple. That is all you need to know for now. - By potassium ions leaving the neuron, that means there are less positive ions inside the neuron. - The inside of the cell becomes less positive. - Ultimately, the electrical charge reaches -70mv and the neuron is polarized again. The neuron is at its resting potential. - Right before the neuron reaches its resting potential, it goes through a refractory period. During this period the neuron will not fire when stimulated. The membrane is hyperpolarized (more negative than -70mv) due to the migration of a high number of potassium ions out of the cell.\ You might be wondering what happens to the sodium ions that entered the cell, or to the potassium ions that left the cell? Ultimately, sodium ions will be pumped out and potassium ions will be pumped back in. Again, the processes are more complex but that is sufficient for our purposes. Chapter 7: Learning =================== 7.1 Introduction to the Scientific Study of Learning ---------------------------------------------------- **[Learning:]** Change in behavior not due to experience. **[Behavior:]** Any observable action, including words, gestures, responses, and more that can be repeated, measured, and are affected by a situation to produce or remove some outcome. Behavior can also refer to biological activity, including actions on the cellular level. **[Innate:]** A term for something you are born knowing how to do. (Can a baby do it?) **[Reflexes:]** A type of stimulus-response relationship which is either learned or innate and indicates that behavior occurs automatically in response to its stimulus. Essential to our survival. **[Pavlovian (or classical) conditioning:]** Occurs when we associate two events. **[Operant (or instrumental) conditioning:]** How we learn what happens when we do something. **[Social (or vicarious) learning:]** We learn something by watching others. **[Latent learning:]** We learn something but don't show it until we have a reason to use our new knowledge. **[Biological constraints:]** Dictate what we will or won't associate in each type of learning. We won't learn to be afraid of something that poses no danger, but we will learn to fear something that does. 7.2 Pavlovian Conditioning , 7.2.3 Pavlovian Extinction, 7.2.6.1 Stimulus Generalization and 7.2.6.2 Stimulus Discrimination ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **[Pavlovian conditioning:]** Associating two events that occur together. **[Stimulus:]** An event in the situation that tells us about our environment and what to do. We need to be able to (a) detect it, it has to be (b) measurable, and (c) it can evoke a response or behavior. **[Conditioned:]** **[Unconditional:]** **[Unconditional stimulus:]** An event that requires learning to be meaningful because the event tells us something about the unconditional stimulus. **[Unconditional response:]** A learned response the occurs to the conditioned stimulus in preparation for the unconditioned stimulus. **[Conditional stimulus:]** When a neural object, action, or person is connected to a specific response over time. **[Conditional response:]** A learned reaction to a stimulus that was previously neutral but has been paired with another stimulus that produces a response. **[Conditioned response:]** Learned response that occurs to the conditioned stimulus in preparation for the unconditioned stimulus. **[Neural stimulus:]** A type of stimulus in which an environmental event currently has no meaning; the stimulus does not indicate whether t=the unconditional stimulus will occur. **[Events in order from what comes first after learning has taken place:]** 1. Unconditional response 2. Unconditional stimulus 3. Conditional response 4. Conditional stimulus **[Pavlov:]** He is the one who did the research and condoned the term. Pavlov is one of the biggest\ names in psychology.\ **[Psychic secretions:]** Salivation that has nothing to do with digestion or food.\ **[When we give the dog food:]** When we put food in the dog\'s mouth, the dog is going to salivate. It is a normal, natural and reflexive response; no learning is needed. The food is the unconditioned stimulus\ **[Salivation when food in mouth:]** The salivation is known as unconditioned response\ **[Response = Behaviour]**:\ The response is unconditioned because no learning was required. **[Bell: ]** When we ring a bell, a dog would not normally salivate. The bell is called neutral stimulus.\ **[Bell + food =]**: At the beginning, the dog will salivate because of the food. But the more we repeat\ this pattern, ultimately, the dog will salivate at the sound of the bell alone.\ **[Bell:]** The dog learned that the bell signals the arrival of the food and starts salivating. The bell is\ conditioned stimulus.\ **[Salivation:]** at the sound of the bell: Conditioned response. It is called condition because learning was needed and necessary in order for this response to\ happen.\ **[Higher order conditioning:]** We trained the dog to salivate at the sound of the bell, and dog does very well. In our example, we will use the bell to salivate when he sees a red triangle.\ We show a dog a red triangle, followed immediately by the bell (red triangle + bell). At the\ beginning, the dog will salivate because of the bell. However, if we keep doing red triangle +\ bell, the dog will salivate when he sees the red triangle alone.\ **[The process:]** The process at which the dog learns to salivate with the red triangle is called\ acquisition. **[Factors:]** Factors associated with classical conditioning.\ **[Frequency:]** The more we do bell + food, the better the learning.\ **[Timing:]** Timing does matter. As soon as we ring the bell, we must give the food to the dog right\ away. If we don\'t give food shortly after, it may prevent the dog from learning.\ **[Order of presentation:]** We MUST sound the bell FIRST and then give the dog food. This is\ because the bell announces the arrival of the food.\ **[More...:]** This could be essential for survival.\ **[Extinction:]** We train the dog to salivate at the sound of the bell, and they do it very well. Now\ we don\'t want him to salivate at the sound of the bell anymore. We will do an extinction\ procedure. **[Extinction procedure: ]** We are going to ring the bell, and we WON\'T give food. Ultimately the dog learns that the food isn\'t coming, and he stops salivating at the sound of the bell.\ **[Spontaneous recovery:]** We did an extinction procedure, and the dog stops salivating at the\ sound of the bell. However, one day and out of the blue, and without any re-training whatsover, we ring the bell, and the dog salivates. Without any further training, ultimately, this behaviour will go away.\ **[Stimulus generalization:]** - **Example:** ONE dog bites you, and you become afraid of ALL dogs.\ Another example: We train a dog to salivate at the sound of ONE bell, but then he starts salivating at the sound of OTHER bells. **[Can be adaptive:]** Can be a good thing. But it can also be maladaptive.\ **[Can be maladaptive:]** It can be maladaptive because one bad incident with a factor can make a person have a negative reaction to other similar factors. - **Example:** If a person interacts with a green person and they do something that hurts the person. The person may end up hating all green people and thinking they all are bad people. This becomes unhealthy, and this can lead to discrimination, hate, etc. to all green people. **[Stimulus discrimination: ]** One dog bites you, and you\'re ONLY afraid of that dog; you\'re NOT afraid of other dogs.\ We train the dog to salivate at ONE bell, and he ONLY salivates when he hears that single bell. 7.3.3 Reinforcement Contingencies --------------------------------- **[Reinforcer:]** Reinforcer is a consequence of a behaviour that makes the behaviour more likely\ repeat in the future.\ **[2 Major types:]** There are 2 major types of reinforcers. BOTH of the reinforcers are likely to\ increase the probability that the behaviour will repeat in the future. - **Positive Reinforcer**: When we do a behaviour, it produces a consequence such that we\'re going to get/receive something pleasant.\ Positive = Adding something - **Negative Reinforcer**: - *Definition*: Likely to increase the probability that the behaviour will occur again. We have two types of negative reinforcers. Negative = Taking something - *Forms (2*): - *Escape*: Example: You have a terrible headache. You take pain medication, and the headache goes away. Something unpleasant has been removed because of your behaviour. - *Avoidance*: You do not have a headache. However, you want to make sure you\'re not going to get a headache by taking pain medication. This prevents something unpleasant from happening. **[Primary reinforcers:]** These are reinforcers that are naturally reinforcing; no learning is required. **[Conditioned reinforcers (Secondary reinforcers): ]** Learning is required. Those reinforcers are NOT naturally reinforcing. We learn through experience to appreciate them. - **Example**: As a baby, you don\'t care about earning money at all. However, as you become older, you want to have a job because money helps you buy things you want and need. You learned through experience that having a job has value. **[Four reinforcement contingency procedures and processes:]** - **Positive reinforcement**: An operant procedure in which behaviour produces a consequence, and that behavior will continue to occur in similar situations in the future. - **Negative reinforcement**: An operant conditioning procedure in which behavior removes a consequence and makes your response more likely in the future. - **Positive punishment**: An operant procedure in which behavior produces a consequence, and then your response will not continue to occur in similar situations in the future. - **Negative punishment:** An operant conditioning procedure in which behavior removes a consequence and makes your repones less likely in the future. **[Generalized conditioned reinforcers:]** **[Immediate reinforcers: ]** Some reinforces are immediate. We do the behaviour and immediately, or shortly after, we are reinforced.**[\ Delayed reinforcers: ]** We do the behaviour, but we are going to wait for the reinforcement. **[Punishment Definition: ]** We do a behaviour, and it produces a consequence such that we are less likely to\ repeat the behaviour in the future.\ **[Types (2):]** Two main types of punishment. BOTH of them are likely to decrease the probability\ that the behaviour will occur again. - **Positive punishment:** We do a behaviour and as a consequence, something unpleasant is going to be added. - **Negative punishment:** We do a behaviour and as a consequence, something that we desire is going to be removed or taken away. **[Skinner advocated:]** the use of positive reinforcement whenever possible? - **Why**: Because it has longer-lasting effect on behavior. **[Most psychologists advocate the use of punishment whenever possible:]** False\ **[Reasons not to use punishment procedures:]** 1. Punishment alone doesn't teach a person what to do to get reinforcers. 2. Punishment involves aversive stimulus, including some that cause pain. 3. A person who uses punishment successfully once is more likely to use it agin. 4. The person whose behavior is punished also learns to use punishment to control others' behavior. 5. Punishment only decreases behavior if the response is punishes a) immediately, b) every time, and c) with large aversive stimulus. 7.3.7 Scheduling Consequences ----------------------------- **[Scheduling Consequences (Schedules of Reinforcement):]** How often should we reinforce a behaviour? Does it make a difference? Two major types of scheduled consequences are continuous and intermittent.\ **[Continuous:]** Every single time the behaviour takes place, it is reinforced, without exception. It is great for teaching a new behaviour. However, when the behaviour is learned, it is important to move to intermittent because it helps to maintain the behaviour longer.\ **[Intermittent (or Partial):]** - **Definition**: It is more resistant to extinction. It means that sometimes the behaviour is reinforced, and sometimes it is not. This makes the behaviour more likely to be maintained for a longer period. This is known as the partial extinction effect. - **Categories (2):** - *Ratio*: Here, it is the number of responses that determine when the behaviour is going to be reinforced. - *Interval*: It is the passage of time that will determine when a behaviour is going to be reinforced. - *Types of Ratio*: We have two types of ratio. - *Fixed ratio*: A very specific number of behaviours must occur before reinforcement takes place. - *Example*: You are hired to sew sweaters. \"For every 5 sweaters you make, I will pay you \$100.\" This scheduled consequence produces the SECOND HIGHEST level of reinforcement. We work hard for this reinforcement. Once we are reinforced, we take a small pause, and work for the\ reinforcement. - *Variable ratio*: The number of responses that must occur in order for reinforcement will take place will vary or change. - *Example*: \"I will pay \$100 for 2 sweaters.\" \"I will pay \$100 for 7 sweaters.\" The worker knows that as long as they\'re making sweaters, they are going to make \$100 dollars, but they don\'t know how many sweaters they have to make.\ This produces the HIGHEST level of reponses. We produce high rate of responses with little to no pauses in between. **[Interval:]** Two types of intervals - **Fixed interval**: A very specific amount of time must go by for the desired behaviour to take place (be reinforced). - *For example*: Every 10 minutes, we are going to reinforce the desired behaviour IF it is going to occur at the 10th minute. If it is the 2nd minute (for example), there is NO reinforcement. This scheduled consequence produces the LOWEST rate of responses. - **Variable interval**: The amount of time that must go by before reinforcing the behaviour differs and varies. This produces the THIRD LOWEST rate of responses. This scheduled consequence works steady and slowly. 7.5.2 Bandura and Social Learning --------------------------------- **[Bandura: ]** The name you need to remember for his work.\ Learning by observation = Vicarious learning = Social learning\ **[Definition:]** We observe the social world around us. We see what is being punished, what\'s being\ rewarded, and we adjust our behaviours accordingly. Another way that we learn via observation is by observing role models, and we imitate and model their behaviours.\ Biologically predisposed: We seemed to be biologically prepared to learn via observation.\ **[Babies:]** One piece of evidence is that infants (humans or chimpanzees) start to imitate facial\ expressions very early in life.\ **[Mirror neurons:]** Another piece of evidence is mirror neurons. Highly specialized neurons\ founds in different parts of the brain and they\'re linked to empathy, learning, and they activate when we\'re perfoming a behaviour. Most importantly, they activate when we watch someone else perform a behaviour.\ **[Bandura's Model:]** - **Cognitive processes**: Bandura\'s strongly believed that cognitive process is essential for learning. His model is cognition heavy. According to Bandura, in order to imitate the behaviour, 4 things must be present. - *1.Attention*: We must pay attention to the behaviour of interest. - *2. Memory*: We must commit this information into memory. We must have a mental representation of it in our memory. - *3. Action/motor skills*: In order for us to take action, we must have the motor skill to have the ability to engage in that behaviour. - *4. Motivation*: In order for us to actually do the behaviour, we must be motivated to do it. We\'re more likely to imitate the behaviour of role models who have been reinforced for their behaviours. In addition, if we ourselves, once we do the behaviour, we are reinforced for doing it and we are more likely to repeat it in the future. 7.6 Biological Constraints on Learning and Learned Helplessness ---------------------------------------------------------------- **[Pavlov: ]** He strongly believes that if we want to study classical condition, we don\'t have to know\ about what the dog is thinking or believing. In other words, we do not need to study cognitive processes or take them into consideration.\ **[Modern researchers:]** Modern researchers challenged this idea. According to modern researchers, you MUST take cognitive processes and take them into considerations. Animals are\ not stupid learners; they are like scientists because they assess and evaluate the information. If the information gives them protective power and it is reliable, they WILL learn it. If it doesn\'t give them productive power and it isn\'t reliable, they WILL NOT learn it. - Pavlov believes that long as we follow the rules of classical conditioning, we can teach anything. - According to classical conditioning, we can teach a lot. However, there are certain things that we cannot teach because the organism is not biologically prepared to learn it. **[Learned helplessness: ]** Both humans and animals can go into learned helplessness if they are repeatedly exposed to a stimulus that is aversive and uncontrollable. When we go into\ learned helplessness, we give up and stop trying completely. - Learned helplessness can be specific and generalized. **[Biological preparedness:]** Some events serve as better signals or conditional stimuli than others due to evolution **[Phobias are often different from fear conditioning:]** - Phobias can be learned in a single trial. - Phobias can persist even when we know that the feared object is harmless. - Phobias are of things that could harm our ancestors that we probably won't encounter. - Phobias do not extinguish quickly or easily. Chapter 8: Memory ================= 8.2 Encoding Memories: Prolonging the Present --------------------------------------------- **[Definition: ]** The persistence of learning over a period of time. Memory consists of multiple mental\ processes. - **Encoding**: Getting the information into the memory system and committing it into memory. - *Analogy*: Writing notes. - **Storage**: Keeping and maintaining the information that was encoded. - *Analogy*: Saving a file to your computer. - **Retrieval**: Getting the information out of storage. In other words, when we retrieve, we are remembering. - *Analogy*: Opening a saved file on your computer. **[Adaptive/ Maladaptive: ]** Memory can be adaptive. Memory can also be maladaptive. An example is when we experience a trauma, we can experience it over and over again.\ **[Explicit memory (Declarative memory):]** Memory can be explicit. It is memory with consciousness and awareness. We can\ retrieve it, and consciously remember and be aware of it.: Another word for explicit memory. **[Implicit memory: ]** Memory can also be implicit, or non-declarative. This is memory of skills, knowledge,\ habits and information that have become automatic. Even though we may not be aware of the, they continue to influence and affect us. - **Procedural memory**: An example of implicit memory is procedural memory.\ These are skills where we put lots of time and energy into learning them, and\ then they became automatic. (Example: Put time and energy into riding a\ bike) **[Prospective memory:]** It is memory of future events and future goals.\ **[Retrospective memory:]** It is memory of past events.\ **[Immediate:]** Memory can be immediate; this is short term memory.\ **[Constructive:]** Human memories are constructive. Human memory does not work like a video recorder. It\ does not capture as is, or keep as is. Human memory is more like playdough because it is changeable, malleable and flexible. Our memories get edited; something is deleted or something is added, something is recombined, something is overexaggerated or underexaggerated. This editing of our memory occurs unconsciously.\ **[Function:]** 1. Memory allows us to remember the past and bring it to life. 2. Memory allows us to remember future goals and plans. 3. Memory allows us to use our knowledge and experience to navigate our life effectively. 4. Memory allows us to acquire new information, so we can continue to function effectively. 8.2.1 Sensory Memory: Icons and Echoes -------------------------------------- **[Definition: ]** Our senses are constantly collecting information from the environment, and they tend to hold into this information for a brief moment of time. Researchers believe that every sense we have has a sensory memory.\ **[Haptic:]** Memory of our sense of touch.\ **[Capacity:]** Belief to be limitless.\ **[Duration:]** A very brief moment of time.\ **[Iconic:]** Iconic memory is our sensory memory for our sense of vision. We tend to hold into\ visual information from a quarter to half a second.\ **[Echoic:]** The sensory memory linked to our auditory system. Here we hold onto this information for 3-4 seconds.\ **[Function:]** The function of sensory memory is that it allows for the moment of our lives to flow\ seamlessly and smoothly, so that we have continuity and meaning in our experiences. **[Partial report technique:]** A memory test that asks participants to recall only a portion of information presented to them. This technique was developed by George Sperling in the 1950s 1. **Present information**: Participants are shown an array of information, such as letters or numbers, for a brief moment. 2. **Provide a cue**: After the information is presented, a cue, such as a tone, indicates which portion of the information to recall. 3. **Recall information**: Participants recall the portion of information indicated by the cue 8.2.2.2 The Working Memory Model -------------------------------- **[The name: ]** It has multiple names: - Working Memory - Immediate Memory - Short Term Memory **[Definition: ]** The capacity to store a small amount of information in the mind and keep it readily\ available for a short period of time.\ **[Capacity:]** 7-9 items or what we can fit into a 2 second time frame.\ **[Duration:]** Anywhere from 12-30 seconds. Unless we repeat the information of short term\ memory over and over again, it\'s going to fade away or go into long term memory.\ **[What is encoded?:]** There is information for all 3, but we mostly encode acoustic information. - **Acoustic**: Verbal - **Visual**: Visual - **Semantic:** Meaning **[The working memory model:]**\ Not just a storage: Short term memory is not just a storage space. - **Workspace/workbench**: Rather, short term memory is a workbench or workstation, where we do not just hold the information but we can also manipulate and play with it. - *Example*: Solving a math problem in our head. - **Multiple components**: According to this model, short term memory consists of multiple components. - **Phonological loop**: It allows us to process auditory information, such as language and sound. It also allows us to process sound we make ourselves, such as when we speak loudly or silently. - **Visuospatial sketchpad**: Allows us to know where an object is. It allows us to\ orient ourselves affectively in space. It allows us to process visual and special information. - **Central executive**: Most complex and least understood of all the components. It\ oversees all the other components and manages the components of information between them. It helps us focus and direct our attention. It helps us direct our behaviours towards our goals. It helps us supress or inhibit things that are irrelevant to our goals. There is more to it, but this is sufficient for this course. 8.3.1 Kinds of Long-Term Memory ------------------------------- **[Definition: ]** Long term memory is where we hold information for a very long period of time.\ **[Capacity:]** Belief to be limitless.\ **[Duration:]** Couple of minutes to a lifetime.\ **[Types of long-term memory:]** - **Episodic (autobiographical**): It is a form of explicit memory. It is a memory about events and episodes in our lives. - *Example*: Graduation from high school. - **Semantic**: A form of explicit memory. Memory about facts, knowledge and information that we\'ve acquired from different sources. - *Example*: School, social media, books. - Some of the information can be factual. - *Example*: Paris is the capital of France. - Some of the information may not be factual, such as conspiracy theories. - **Procedural**: Memory of how to do something, of skills and habits that we put time and effort into learn, but they became automatic. (Example: Riding a bike). Procedural memory is more resistant to amnesia than other types of memories. 8.3.2 The Transfer to Long-Term Memory -------------------------------------- **[2 Major ways:]** To transfer memories to long-term memory. **[Automatic processing:]** We don\'t put time, effort and energy into retaining the information. We\'re just going to retain it as we go about our day. **[Effortful processing:]** On purpose, we\'re going to put time, effort and energy into transferring the information into long term memory. - **Examples of Effortful processing**: - *Rehearsal*: This is when we repeat the information over and over again. The more we repeat it, the more likely we are to remember it. - *Chunking*: We\'re going to take the information and break it down into either small and manageable pieces, or into small, meaningful manageable pieces. - *Example*: Creating acronyms. - *Mnemonic devices*: Any technique or strategy we use in order for us to remember something. - *Cramming/Massed Practice*: Example: We have an exam, and we leave all the studying for the last minute. - *Spacing effect/distributed practice*: - *Example*: We have an exam on the 16th of March, and we start\ preparing for that exam on February 16th. We review the information multiple times and have multiple study sessions. - *Testing effect*: When we are tested on something, multiple times, we are likely to remember better than if we were tested just once. - *Self-reference effect*: Any information that is linked to ourselves, we are more likely to remember it and remember it better. - *Visual imagery*: Anything that is concrete and related to a visual image, we are more likely to remember it better. **[Organizational processing:]** Take the information and organize it in a meaningful and coherent way. (Ex: Hierarchies, Categories.)\ **[Adaptive memory:]** This is memory developed via evolutionary processes because it is highly adaptive\ and essential for survival. In addition, any information that is linked to survival, any information that makes survival more likely and enhances survival, we are more likely to remember more. **[Levels of processing: ]** We can process information in one of two levels. - **Shallow/Moderate**: For example, for visual information, we pay attention to the superficial characteristics of the word. For example, is it underlined or bolded. Another example: For the word \"acoustic\" for example, \"this word rhymes with what word?\" - **Deep**: Here we process the information semantically and we\'re going to focus on meaning. When we focus on meaning, this is when we learn, remember and perform better.