Psychology Chapter 2: The Research Enterprise

Chapter 2: The Research Enterprise

• This chapter is based on Weiten's (2008) book, "Themes and Variations," 11th edition, briefer version.
• The scientific approach to behavior is explored.

1. Looking for Laws: The Scientific Approach to Behavior

• Goals of the Scientific Enterprise:
  • Measure and describe behavior.
  • Understand and predict behavior.
  • Apply and control behavior.
• Steps in a Scientific Investigation:
  • Formulate a hypothesis (make a prediction).
  • Select a research design (survey, experiment, correlation).
  • Collect data.
  • Analyze the data.
  • Report the findings.

Hypothesis

• A tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
• An educated guess.

Operational definition

• Explains how variables in an experiment are observed and measured.
• Examples: Frustration defined as the number of interruptions experienced, aggression defined as the intensity of a shock.

Theory

• A system of interrelated ideas designed to explain a set of observations.
• Different ideas are tied together in one explanation.
• Can't test an entire theory at once.
• Therefore, theories are narrowed down to fit an experimental situation.
• Hypotheses predict what will happen in an experiment.

2. Looking for Causes: Experimental Research

• Independent and Dependent Variables:
  • Independent variable (cause): The experimenter directly manipulates or changes this variable.
  • Dependent variable (effect): The variable is expected to change due to changes in the independent variable.
• Experimental and Control Groups:
  • Experimental group: Exposes participants to the manipulated independent variable.
  • Control group: Doesn't receive special treatment.
• Extraneous Variables:
  • Other factors that affect the dependent variable.
  • Kept the same for all groups.
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Experimental Research:
  • Advantages: Determine cause-and-effect relationships.
  • Disadvantages: Artificial, may not generalize to real-world phenomena and sometimes may be unethical.

Experiment

• Different conditions are set up to observe the effect on subjects' behaviors.
• Active manipulation of experimental conditions to generate results.
• Used to determine cause and effect.

3. Looking for Links: Correlational Research

• Correlation:
  • Measures two or more variables and compares them to find a relationship.
  • Measures variables as they naturally occur without manipulation.
• Positive Correlation:
  • Variables change in the same direction (e.g., As one goes up, the other goes up).
• Negative Correlation:
  • Variables change in opposite directions (e.g., As one goes up, the other goes down).
• Correlation and Prediction:
  • Strong correlations allow predictions.
• Correlation and Causation:
  • Correlations do not determine cause.
  • Another factor may be involved.

Types of Correlation

• Positive correlation: Two variables either increase or decrease together.

• Negative correlation: As one variable increases, the other decreases.

• Correlation Coefficient: A number between -1 and +1 that indicates the strength and direction of a relationship.

• Closest to -1 or +1 indicates a strong relationship. - Values close to 0 indicate no relationship.

• Example variables: High school GPA, College GPA; Absences, exam scores.

Descriptive Methods

• Naturalistic observation: Observe behavior in natural settings without intervention.

• Case studies: In-depth investigation of an individual; clinical studies.

• Surveys: Subjects report behavior in response to questionnaires; gather lots of data in a short time, but relies on self-report.

• Advantages and Disadvantages:

  • Advantages: Can explore topics experimental procedures can't. Provides more flexibility and is sometimes more ethical.
  • Disadvantages: Cannot determine cause-and-effect.

4. Looking for Flaws: Evaluating Research

• Sampling Bias: Is the sample representative of the population?
• Placebo Effects: Subject expectations can distort data (e.g., single blind experiments).
• Distortions in Self-Report Data: Subjects may give socially desirable answers—lying or giving a socially acceptable answer. This can also be due to memory errors, misunderstanding or tendency to agree or disagree.
• Experimenter Bias: Researcher's expectations can distort data.
• Importance of Replication: Repeat the study to determine if earlier results are accurate.
• Meta-analysis: Combines results of many studies to assess the size and consistency of a variable.

5. Looking at Ethics: Do The Ends Justify The Means

• Ethical principles: Voluntary participation, avoid harm, debrief if deception is used, right to privacy, justify harm to animals, get approval from Institutional Review Board (IRB).

Explore the scientific approach to behavior as discussed in Weiten's 'Themes and Variations'. This chapter covers the goals and steps in scientific investigations, including hypothesis formulation and operational definitions. Engage with concepts that underlie research methodology in psychology.