Psychology Chapter 2: The Research Enterprise

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Questions and Answers

What does a correlation coefficient of -0.8 indicate?

A strong positive correlation.

A moderate positive correlation.

A weak negative correlation.

A strong negative correlation. (correct)

In a naturalistic observation, what is the primary goal of the researcher?

To establish cause-and-effect relationships.

To conduct controlled experiments in a lab setting.

To describe behavior as it occurs without interference. (correct)

To manipulate the environment to test specific hypotheses.

If two variables are positively correlated, which of the following scenarios is most likely?

As one variable increases, the other tends to decrease.

As one variable decreases, the other tends to increase.

Changes in one variable have no effect on the other variable.

As one variable increases, the other also tends to increase. (correct)

A researcher finds a strong correlation between ice cream sales and crime rates. What is the most accurate interpretation of this finding?

That a third variable might be influencing both ice cream sales and crime rates. Signup and view all the answers

A study finds that as the amount of time spent studying decreases, test scores also tend to decrease. What type of correlation is this an example of?

A positive correlation. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the primary purpose of a hypothesis in scientific research?

To make a specific, testable prediction about the relationship between variables. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of a scientific investigation, what is the purpose of an operational definition?

To provide a concrete, measurable way to define variables in the study. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of the 'apply and control behavior' aim in psychology?

To develop interventions and programs to improve outcomes. Signup and view all the answers

Which step in the scientific approach involves making a prediction?

Formulating a hypothesis Signup and view all the answers

How does a theory differ from a hypothesis?

A theory is a broad system of ideas, while a hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between variables. Signup and view all the answers

Which research method is most suited to determining cause-and-effect relationships?

Experiment Signup and view all the answers

What is the main aim of manipulating experimental conditions in an experiment?

To observe what happens under different circumstances and determine causes. Signup and view all the answers

Which of these represents the correct order of steps, in the scientific approach?

Hypothesis, Select Design, Collect Data, Analyze Data, Report Findings Signup and view all the answers

In an experiment, what is the primary purpose of the independent variable?

To serve as the condition that is manipulated by the experimenter. Signup and view all the answers

What does the 'dependent variable' represent in an experimental setting?

The result, expected outcome, or the variable that is influenced. Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of random assignment when forming experimental and control groups?

To give every subject an equal chance of being in either group. Signup and view all the answers

Why do researchers use operational definitions in experiments?

To explain how the variables in the experiment will be measured. Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of an extraneous variable within an experimental design?

It is a variable that can influence the dependent variable, excluding the independent variable. Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary limitation of experimental research, despite its strengths, as mentioned in the provided text?

It may not be applicable to real-world settings/it can be artificial. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes correlational research?

Gathering measurements on multiple variables to assess relationships. Signup and view all the answers

How does correlational research differ from experimental research?

Correlational research examines relationships and experiments manipulate variables. Signup and view all the answers

Which research method involves an in-depth investigation of a single individual?

Case study Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary limitation associated with using case studies in research?

Inability to generalize findings to other cases Signup and view all the answers

What is the main advantage of using surveys in research?

Surveys can gather data from large numbers in a short time. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of research is best suited for establishing cause-and-effect relationships between variables??

Experiment Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential drawback of relying on self-report data?

Subjects may give socially desirable answers Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of using a double-blind experiment?

To reduce experimenter bias Signup and view all the answers

What is the importance of replication in the research process?

To confirm findings and ensure accuracy Signup and view all the answers

What does 'meta-analysis' refer to in the context of research?

A method that combines results from many studies Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Chapter 2: The Research Enterprise

This chapter is based on Weiten's (2008) book, "Themes and Variations," 11th edition, briefer version.
The scientific approach to behavior is explored.

1. Looking for Laws: The Scientific Approach to Behavior

Goals of the Scientific Enterprise:
- Measure and describe behavior.
- Understand and predict behavior.
- Apply and control behavior.
Steps in a Scientific Investigation:
- Formulate a hypothesis (make a prediction).
- Select a research design (survey, experiment, correlation).
- Collect data.
- Analyze the data.
- Report the findings.

Hypothesis

A tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
An educated guess.

Operational definition

Explains how variables in an experiment are observed and measured.
Examples: Frustration defined as the number of interruptions experienced, aggression defined as the intensity of a shock.

Theory

A system of interrelated ideas designed to explain a set of observations.
Different ideas are tied together in one explanation.
Can't test an entire theory at once.
Therefore, theories are narrowed down to fit an experimental situation.
Hypotheses predict what will happen in an experiment.

2. Looking for Causes: Experimental Research

Independent and Dependent Variables:
- Independent variable (cause): The experimenter directly manipulates or changes this variable.
- Dependent variable (effect): The variable is expected to change due to changes in the independent variable.
Experimental and Control Groups:
- Experimental group: Exposes participants to the manipulated independent variable.
- Control group: Doesn't receive special treatment.
Extraneous Variables:
- Other factors that affect the dependent variable.
- Kept the same for all groups.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Experimental Research:
- Advantages: Determine cause-and-effect relationships.
- Disadvantages: Artificial, may not generalize to real-world phenomena and sometimes may be unethical.

Experiment

Different conditions are set up to observe the effect on subjects' behaviors.
Active manipulation of experimental conditions to generate results.
Used to determine cause and effect.

3. Looking for Links: Correlational Research

Correlation:
- Measures two or more variables and compares them to find a relationship.
- Measures variables as they naturally occur without manipulation.
Positive Correlation:
- Variables change in the same direction (e.g., As one goes up, the other goes up).
Negative Correlation:
- Variables change in opposite directions (e.g., As one goes up, the other goes down).
Correlation and Prediction:
- Strong correlations allow predictions.
Correlation and Causation:
- Correlations do not determine cause.
- Another factor may be involved.

Types of Correlation

Positive correlation: Two variables either increase or decrease together.
Negative correlation: As one variable increases, the other decreases.
Correlation Coefficient: A number between -1 and +1 that indicates the strength and direction of a relationship.
Closest to -1 or +1 indicates a strong relationship. - Values close to 0 indicate no relationship.
Example variables: High school GPA, College GPA; Absences, exam scores.

Descriptive Methods

Naturalistic observation: Observe behavior in natural settings without intervention.
Case studies: In-depth investigation of an individual; clinical studies.
Surveys: Subjects report behavior in response to questionnaires; gather lots of data in a short time, but relies on self-report.
Advantages and Disadvantages:
- Advantages: Can explore topics experimental procedures can't. Provides more flexibility and is sometimes more ethical.
- Disadvantages: Cannot determine cause-and-effect.

4. Looking for Flaws: Evaluating Research

Sampling Bias: Is the sample representative of the population?
Placebo Effects: Subject expectations can distort data (e.g., single blind experiments).
Distortions in Self-Report Data: Subjects may give socially desirable answers—lying or giving a socially acceptable answer. This can also be due to memory errors, misunderstanding or tendency to agree or disagree.
Experimenter Bias: Researcher's expectations can distort data.
Importance of Replication: Repeat the study to determine if earlier results are accurate.
Meta-analysis: Combines results of many studies to assess the size and consistency of a variable.

5. Looking at Ethics: Do The Ends Justify The Means

Ethical principles: Voluntary participation, avoid harm, debrief if deception is used, right to privacy, justify harm to animals, get approval from Institutional Review Board (IRB).

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Description

Explore the scientific approach to behavior as discussed in Weiten's 'Themes and Variations'. This chapter covers the goals and steps in scientific investigations, including hypothesis formulation and operational definitions. Engage with concepts that underlie research methodology in psychology.