Scientific Approach to Research
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What is the primary goal of the scientific approach to research?

  • To describe and predict phenomena (correct)
  • To develop theories
  • To collect data
  • To test hypotheses

    • What is the main difference between a hypothesis and a theory?

  • A hypothesis is a variable that can change, while a theory is a phenomenon that can be observed
  • A hypothesis is a tentative belief, while a theory is a systematic way of organising and explaining observations (correct)
  • A hypothesis is a concrete way of assessing a variable, while a theory is a systematic way of organising and explaining observations
  • A hypothesis is a procedure that precedes a theoretical framework, while a theory is a tentative belief about the relationship between variables

    • What is the purpose of measurement in psychological research?

  • To test hypotheses
  • To collect data
  • To describe and predict phenomena
  • To assess variables (correct)

    • What is the role of understanding in the scientific approach to research?

    <p>To identify the causal factors that led to the results found in the research</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of a hypothesis in psychological research?

    <p>To predict the findings that should be observed if the theory is correct</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main characteristic of a theory in psychological research?

    <p>A theory is a systematic way of organising and explaining observations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of measurement in research?

    <p>To obtain a numerical value for a concept</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the larger group to which research findings should be applicable?

    <p>Population</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the ability to infer something about a larger population from a subset of that population?

    <p>Generalisability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a sample in research?

    <p>A subgroup of the population that is likely to be representative of the population as a whole</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the soundness of a study's procedures in testing a hypothesis?

    <p>Internal validity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why must researchers balance internal and external validity?

    <p>The more tightly a researcher controls what participants experience, the less the situation resembles 'real life'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the purpose of quantifying teachers' observations by asking them to rate boys on an 18-item scale?

    <p>To measure the boys' popularity with their peers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the ability of a measure to provide consistent results?

    <p>Internal consistency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of research in psychology?

    <p>To understand the behavior of people in general</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of turning an abstract concept into a numerical value?

    <p>Measurement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In an experiment, what do different levels or variations of the independent variable refer to?

    <p>conditions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of a control group in an experiment?

    <p>to act as a comparison group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is operationalising a variable?

    <p>turning abstract concepts into concrete variables that are defined by some set of actions or operations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a dependent variable?

    <p>a variable that is measured by the researcher</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a confounding variable?

    <p>a variable that influences the dependent variable in a systematic way</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is internal consistency?

    <p>when two different interviewers rate a subject similarly regarding a particular dimension</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of a single-blind experiment?

    <p>the subject is unaware of which experimental condition he/she is experiencing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between a condition and a variable?

    <p>a condition is a level of the independent variable, while a variable is a concept</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it necessary to control for confounding variables?

    <p>to ensure the internal validity of a study</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of conducting an experiment in a circular fashion?

    <p>to allow hypotheses to lead to conclusions which lead to hypotheses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main advantage of experiments in psychological research?

    <p>They enable manipulation of variables one at a time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a limitation of case studies?

    <p>They are susceptible to researcher bias.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the importance of random sampling in survey research?

    <p>To ensure that survey results accurately reflect the population as a whole without introducing systematic bias.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of a stratified random sample?

    <p>It reflects the proportion drawn from each population category.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an advantage of case studies?

    <p>They allow study of complex phenomena not easily reproduced experimentally.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a correlation coefficient measure?

    <p>The extent to which two variables are co-related.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a negative correlation between two variables mean?

    <p>The higher a subject scores on one variable, the lower s/he will score on the other.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a benefit of single-blind experiments?

    <p>Participants are kept blind to the condition to which they are being exposed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a limitation of surveys?

    <p>They are limited by the honesty of participants' responses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of replication in an experiment?

    <p>to establish cause and effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an advantage of experiments over case studies?

    <p>Experiments enable cause-and-effect relationships to be established.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major limitation of experimental research?

    <p>lack of generalisability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key limitation of quasi-experimental design?

    <p>random assignment is not possible</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the study of mood and memory, what are happiness and sadness?

    <p>conditions of the independent variable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of quasi-experimental design?

    <p>useful when experiments are impractical</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of single case studies?

    <p>not a source of hypotheses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is correlation?

    <p>The degree to which two variables are related</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between a CAT scan and an MRI?

    <p>A CAT scan uses x-rays, while an MRI uses magnetic fields</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When is deception considered 'useful' in a study?

    <p>When informed consent would jeopardise the authenticity of the study</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main principle in balancing ethics in animal research?

    <p>The costs to the animal are balanced against the benefits to humanity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three principles underlying critical thinking?

    <p>Scepticism, objectivity, and open-mindedness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a variable?

    <p>A characteristic that can take on different numerical values</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a hypothesis?

    <p>A tentative belief about the relationship between two variables</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a single-blind study?

    <p>A study where participants are not informed about crucial information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a random sample?

    <p>A sample that is randomly selected from a population</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a correlation coefficient?

    <p>A measure of the strength of a relationship</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does correlating two variables involve?

    <p>Assessing the extent to which one variable predicts another</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of standardised procedures?

    <p>To ensure that any differences observed can be attributed to the experimental manipulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following can threaten the internal validity of a study?

    <p>Extraneous variables</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is essential for generalising the findings of a study to a population?

    <p>External validity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the best way to obtain an accurate assessment of a variable?

    <p>Using multiple measures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of a researcher in psychology?

    <p>To predict the behaviour of others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is reliability in measurement?

    <p>The ability to give consistent results</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of reliability is most important in a measurement?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term refers to the applicability of a study's findings to a population?

    <p>Generalisability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of using multiple measures of a variable?

    <p>It provides a safety net for detecting errors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Showing that a measure of children's achievement, popularity and adjustment can predict how well they do, academically and socially, years later is:

    <p>an indication of the validity of the measures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The effectiveness of emotional expression of feelings about stressful events in later health is supported by:

    <p>all of the options listed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In an experiment, the investigator:

    <p>all of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best states the results of the Harlow study?

    <p>The infants are drawn to their mothers by the security and comfort their mothers provide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A placebo effect:

    <p>depends on the participant's belief in the effectiveness of the independent variable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Inferential statistics:

    <p>helps draw conclusions about a population from what happens to a sample</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Experiments have several advantages over other research methods. Among them are:

    <p>increased internal validity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Generalisability refers to:

    <p>the applicability of the findings to the entire population of interest to the researcher</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a central characteristic of a valid measure?

    <p>it can predict other variables with which it should, theoretically, be related</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of research in psychology?

    <p>to describe, to predict and to understand</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three main goals of the scientific approach to research?

    <p>description, prediction and understanding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a theory, according to the text?

    <p>a systematic way of organising and explaining observations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the definition of a hypothesis?

    <p>a tentative belief about the relationship between two or more variables</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is measurement in psychological research?

    <p>a concrete way of assessing a variable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a hypothesis predict?

    <p>the findings that should be observed if the theory is correct</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of researchers when conducting studies on a subset of people?

    <p>To learn about the behaviour of a larger group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do researchers try to achieve when designing a study?

    <p>To compromise on internal and external validity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is measurement important in psychological research?

    <p>To turn abstract concepts into numerical values</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is internal consistency in the context of research?

    <p>When similar results are obtained from different methods of asking the same question</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the limitation of a study that fails to convincingly test the experimenter's hypothesis?

    <p>It lacks internal validity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why did Rodkin et al. (2000) ask teachers to rate boys on an 18-item scale?

    <p>To quantify the concept of 'popularity'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of a control group in an experiment?

    <p>To act as a comparison group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is operationalising a variable?

    <p>Turning an abstract concept into a concrete variable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a confounding variable?

    <p>A variable that could influence the dependent variable in a systematic way</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of a single-blind experiment?

    <p>The participant is unaware of which experimental condition they are experiencing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key advantage of experiments in psychological research?

    <p>They provide the cleanest findings of any research method in psychology.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a limitation of case studies?

    <p>They are susceptible to researcher bias.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of stratified random sampling in survey research?

    <p>To ensure proportional representation of different subpopulations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a correlation coefficient measure?

    <p>The extent to which being high or low on one measure predicts being high or low on another.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a negative correlation between two variables mean?

    <p>The higher a subject scores on one variable, the lower they will score on the other.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of modern neuro-imaging techniques?

    <p>To transform data from brain scans into images using computer programs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary concern in balancing ethics in animal research?

    <p>Balancing the costs to the animal against the benefits to humanity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of keeping participants 'blind' to the purpose of the study?

    <p>To avoid biased results due to knowledge of the research</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of a correlation between two variables?

    <p>It allows prediction of a score on one variable based on another variable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of scepticism in critical thinking?

    <p>To question and analyse information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of standardised procedures in research?

    <p>To limit variability due to changes in procedures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What threatens the internal validity of a study?

    <p>All of the options listed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the extent to which the results of a study can be generalised beyond its original context?

    <p>External validity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the best way to obtain an accurate assessment of a variable?

    <p>By using multiple measures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the ability of a measure to provide consistent results?

    <p>Reliability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main characteristic of single case studies?

    <p>They are useful for generating hypotheses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main limitation of quasi-experimental design?

    <p>It lacks random assignment to conditions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of replication in an experiment?

    <p>To verify that the results are not due to chance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary strength of experimental research?

    <p>It allows for the establishment of causality between variables</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of quasi-experimental design?

    <p>It is useful when experimental design is impractical</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of a valid measure?

    <p>It can predict other variables with which it should be related.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an advantage of experiments?

    <p>They allow for cause-and-effect relationships to be determined.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does inferential statistics help researchers do?

    <p>Draw conclusions about a population from a sample.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of emotional expression in reducing stress?

    <p>To reduce physical consequences of stress.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Harlow's study find about infant monkeys' attachment to their mothers?

    <p>Infant monkeys are drawn to their mothers because of security and comfort.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process of defining an abstract concept, such as depression, in a concrete way?

    <p>Operationalising</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of group is missing in an experiment to draw conclusions about the effects of music on student performance?

    <p>A control group which does not listen to music</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a variable that can influence the results but was not intended to be included in the study?

    <p>Possible confounding variable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of statistics are used to summarise the findings of a study?

    <p>Descriptive statistics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of statistics are used to determine whether the relationship between the independent and dependent variable is meaningful?

    <p>Inferential statistics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the best description of a study that combines hypnosis and acupuncture to treat smoking, and measures the number of cigarettes participants smoke?

    <p>Experimental</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of a control group in an experiment?

    <p>To compare against the groups who receive the experimental manipulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for turning an abstract concept into a numerical value?

    <p>Quantifying</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between descriptive and inferential statistics?

    <p>Descriptive statistics are used to summarise data, while inferential statistics are used to draw conclusions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of conducting an experiment?

    <p>To test the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of a valid measure?

    <p>It can predict other variables with which it is theoretically related.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of an experiment?

    <p>To identify cause-effect relationships between variables.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the ability of a measure to provide consistent results?

    <p>Reliability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of inferential statistics?

    <p>To make conclusions about a population from a sample.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the applicability of findings to the entire population of interest?

    <p>Generalisability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of a placebo effect?

    <p>It depends on the participant's belief in the effectiveness of the independent variable.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of the scientific approach to research?

    <p>To understand and explain the phenomenon of interest.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of an experiment in terms of cause and effect?

    <p>To identify cause-effect relationships between variables.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of the Harlow study?

    <p>It found that infant monkeys are drawn to their mothers by the security and comfort provided.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of research in psychology?

    <p>To understand, predict, and explain human behaviour and mental processes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When conducting research, it is sometimes necessary to not fully disclose the true purpose of the study to participants before the study begins. What is required in such cases?

    <p>Informing participants of the true purpose of the study at the end of the study</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of fallacy is committed when an argument is made stronger by attacking a simplified or distorted version of an opposing argument?

    <p>Straw man argument</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of scepticism in critical thinking?

    <p>To question assumptions and analyse evidence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the context of discovery in scientific research?

    <p>The exploration of the nature of a phenomenon using descriptive research methods</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between reliability and validity in measurement?

    <p>Reliability refers to consistency, while validity refers to accuracy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of argument is committed when an argument is made stronger by appealing to the authority of an expert?

    <p>Appeal to authority</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of the context of justification in scientific research?

    <p>To test hypotheses and theories using experimental and quasi-experimental methods</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the fallacy committed when an argument is made stronger by attacking an opposing argument that is not representative of the actual argument?

    <p>Straw man argument</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of critical thinking in evaluating arguments?

    <p>To evaluate evidence and arguments objectively</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterises substance-related disorders?

    <p>Continued use of a substance that negatively affects psychological and social functioning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which personality disorder is more prevalent in women, and which is more prevalent in men?

    <p>Borderline; antisocial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the theory that states a diagnosis of mental illness is simply a way to categorise individuals whom a society considers deviant?

    <p>Labelling theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a set of hypotheses about a patient's personality structure and the meaning of the symptom, used to assess psychopathology?

    <p>Psychodynamic formulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In clinical psychology, many practitioners consider themselves what, integrating an understanding of classical and operant conditioning with a cognitive-social perspective?

    <p>Cognitive-behavioural</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the family systems model, what are the methods that families use to preserve equilibrium?

    <p>Homoeostatic mechanisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are perceptual experiences that distort or occur without external stimulus, common in individuals suffering from schizophrenia?

    <p>Hallucinations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is characterised by a period of abnormally elevated or expansive mood, during which an individual has an inflated sense of self that reaches grandiose proportions?

    <p>Mania</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which personality disorder is more prevalent in women, and is often associated with difficulties in emotional regulation and impulsivity?

    <p>Borderline personality disorder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the ability to infer something about a larger population from a subset of that population?

    <p>Generalisability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of substance-related disorders?

    <p>Continued use of a substance that negatively affects psychological and social functioning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which personality disorder is more prevalent in women?

    <p>Borderline personality disorder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a diagnosis of mental illness as a way to categorise individuals whom a society considers deviant?

    <p>Labelling theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a set of hypotheses about a patient's personality structure and the meaning of the symptom?

    <p>Psychodynamic formulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for perceptual experiences that distort or occur without external stimulus?

    <p>Hallucinations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a period of abnormally elevated or expansive mood, during which an individual has an inflated sense of self?

    <p>Mania</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the methods that families use to preserve equilibrium, according to the family systems model?

    <p>Homoeostatic mechanisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary approach of many practitioners in clinical psychology?

    <p>Cognitive-behavioural</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the ability of a measure to provide consistent results?

    <p>Reliability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of turning an abstract concept into a numerical value?

    <p>Operationalising</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Scientific Approach to Research

    • The scientific approach has three main goals: description, prediction, and understanding.
    • Description involves summarizing data to make it easily understood.
    • Prediction involves using research outcomes to identify what would happen in the future.
    • Understanding involves identifying causal factors that led to research results.

    Hypothesis and Theory

    • A theory is a systematic way of organizing and explaining observations.
    • A hypothesis is a tentative belief about the relationship between two or more variables.

    Measurement in Research

    • Measurement is the process of turning an abstract concept into a numerical value.
    • Measurement can be complex and may require multiple measures to obtain information.

    Population and Sample

    • A population is a larger group of people that researchers intend to study.
    • A sample is a subgroup of the population that is representative of the population as a whole.

    Generalisability and Internal Validity

    • Generalisability refers to the ability to infer something about a larger population from the behavior of a subset of people.
    • Internal validity refers to the strength of the study design in ensuring that the procedures used to test the hypothesis are sound.

    Experimental Research

    • An experiment involves manipulating variables to observe their effects.
    • The different levels or variations of the independent variable are referred to as conditions.
    • The dependent variable is the response measured to see whether the experimental manipulation had an effect.

    Operationalisation and Control Group

    • Operationalisation involves defining abstract concepts in concrete terms.
    • A control group is used as a comparison group to ensure that the results are not due to extraneous variables.

    Confounding Variables and Experiments

    • A confounding variable is a variable that may be influencing the dependent variable in a systematic way.
    • Experiments provide the cleanest findings of any research method in psychology.

    Case Studies and Survey Research

    • Case studies are in-depth examinations of a single case or a small number of cases.
    • Random sampling helps to ensure that survey results accurately reflect the population as a whole without introducing systematic bias.

    Correlation and Causation

    • A correlation coefficient measures the extent to which two variables are related.
    • A negative correlation indicates that as one variable increases, the other decreases.

    Neuroimaging Techniques and Ethics

    • Modern neuroimaging techniques use computer programs to transform data from brain scans into images.
    • Ethics in research with animals involves balancing the costs to the animal against the benefits to humanity.

    Critical Thinking

    • Critical thinking involves scepticism, objectivity, and open-mindedness.
    • Critical thinking is essential in evaluating research findings and avoiding misleading conclusions.

    Variables and Hypothesis

    • A variable is a characteristic that can differ from one situation to another or from one person to another.
    • A hypothesis is a tentative belief about the relationship between two variables.### Reliability and Validity
    • A reliable measure provides consistent results each time it is used for its intended purpose.
    • There are four types of reliability: test-retest, internal consistency, interrater reliability, and they are all important and necessary in different contexts.
    • A reliable measure does not fluctuate substantially despite the presence of random factors that might influence the results.

    Types of Validity

    • External validity refers to the ability to generalize findings to situations outside the laboratory.
    • Generalisability refers to the applicability of the findings to the entire population of interest to the researcher.
    • A valid measure can predict other variables with which it should, theoretically, be related.

    Research Methods

    • An experiment involves manipulating variables and measuring their effects on behaviour.
    • The goal of an experiment is to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
    • Inferential statistics help draw conclusions about a population from what happens to a sample.

    Experimental Design

    • Experimental designs have several advantages, including replication and the establishment of cause-and-effect relationships.
    • One of the key strengths of experimental research is the increased confidence in causality.
    • Weaknesses of experimental research include limited generalizability outside the laboratory and difficulties in controlling complex phenomena.

    Quasi-Experimental Design

    • A quasi-experimental design is similar to an experimental design, but lacks random assignment to conditions.
    • The major weakness of a quasi-experimental design is the lack of random assignment.

    Case Study

    • Case studies are not highly generalizable and are not an appropriate source of hypotheses.
    • Case study methods can be used in combination with quantitative or experimental procedures and are useful at the beginning or end of a series of studies.

    Scientific Approach to Research

    • The scientific approach has three main goals: description, prediction, and understanding.
    • Description involves summarizing data to make it easily understood.
    • Prediction involves using research outcomes to identify what would happen in the future.
    • Understanding involves identifying causal factors that led to research results.

    Hypothesis and Theory

    • A theory is a systematic way of organizing and explaining observations.
    • A hypothesis is a tentative belief about the relationship between two or more variables.

    Measurement in Research

    • Measurement is the process of turning an abstract concept into a numerical value.
    • Measurement can be complex and may require multiple measures to obtain information.

    Population and Sample

    • A population is a larger group of people that researchers intend to study.
    • A sample is a subgroup of the population that is representative of the population as a whole.

    Generalisability and Internal Validity

    • Generalisability refers to the ability to infer something about a larger population from the behavior of a subset of people.
    • Internal validity refers to the strength of the study design in ensuring that the procedures used to test the hypothesis are sound.

    Experimental Research

    • An experiment involves manipulating variables to observe their effects.
    • The different levels or variations of the independent variable are referred to as conditions.
    • The dependent variable is the response measured to see whether the experimental manipulation had an effect.

    Operationalisation and Control Group

    • Operationalisation involves defining abstract concepts in concrete terms.
    • A control group is used as a comparison group to ensure that the results are not due to extraneous variables.

    Confounding Variables and Experiments

    • A confounding variable is a variable that may be influencing the dependent variable in a systematic way.
    • Experiments provide the cleanest findings of any research method in psychology.

    Case Studies and Survey Research

    • Case studies are in-depth examinations of a single case or a small number of cases.
    • Random sampling helps to ensure that survey results accurately reflect the population as a whole without introducing systematic bias.

    Correlation and Causation

    • A correlation coefficient measures the extent to which two variables are related.
    • A negative correlation indicates that as one variable increases, the other decreases.

    Neuroimaging Techniques and Ethics

    • Modern neuroimaging techniques use computer programs to transform data from brain scans into images.
    • Ethics in research with animals involves balancing the costs to the animal against the benefits to humanity.

    Critical Thinking

    • Critical thinking involves scepticism, objectivity, and open-mindedness.
    • Critical thinking is essential in evaluating research findings and avoiding misleading conclusions.

    Variables and Hypothesis

    • A variable is a characteristic that can differ from one situation to another or from one person to another.
    • A hypothesis is a tentative belief about the relationship between two variables.### Reliability and Validity
    • A reliable measure provides consistent results each time it is used for its intended purpose.
    • There are four types of reliability: test-retest, internal consistency, interrater reliability, and they are all important and necessary in different contexts.
    • A reliable measure does not fluctuate substantially despite the presence of random factors that might influence the results.

    Types of Validity

    • External validity refers to the ability to generalize findings to situations outside the laboratory.
    • Generalisability refers to the applicability of the findings to the entire population of interest to the researcher.
    • A valid measure can predict other variables with which it should, theoretically, be related.

    Research Methods

    • An experiment involves manipulating variables and measuring their effects on behaviour.
    • The goal of an experiment is to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
    • Inferential statistics help draw conclusions about a population from what happens to a sample.

    Experimental Design

    • Experimental designs have several advantages, including replication and the establishment of cause-and-effect relationships.
    • One of the key strengths of experimental research is the increased confidence in causality.
    • Weaknesses of experimental research include limited generalizability outside the laboratory and difficulties in controlling complex phenomena.

    Quasi-Experimental Design

    • A quasi-experimental design is similar to an experimental design, but lacks random assignment to conditions.
    • The major weakness of a quasi-experimental design is the lack of random assignment.

    Case Study

    • Case studies are not highly generalizable and are not an appropriate source of hypotheses.
    • Case study methods can be used in combination with quantitative or experimental procedures and are useful at the beginning or end of a series of studies.

    Experimental Research

    • Experimental research has several advantages, including the ability to establish cause-and-effect relationships, replication, and application to real-world situations.
    • In an experiment, a researcher manipulates one or more independent variables and measures their effect on one or more dependent variables.

    Quasi-Experimental Design

    • In a quasi-experimental design, participants are not randomly assigned to conditions, unlike in experimental design.
    • This design is useful when random assignment is not possible, such as when studying the effect of gender or age on a particular outcome.

    Case Studies

    • Case studies involve in-depth analysis of a single case or a small number of cases.
    • They are useful for generating hypotheses and exploring phenomena in detail.

    Naturalistic Observation

    • Naturalistic observation involves observing behavior in a natural setting, without interference or manipulation.
    • It is useful for discovering patterns and relationships in real-world situations.

    Correlational Research

    • Correlational research examines the relationship between two or more variables.
    • It is useful for identifying patterns and relationships between variables, but cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships.

    Ethics in Research

    • Informed consent is essential in research, ensuring that participants understand the study and can withdraw at any time.
    • Deception may be used in research, but only with proper debriefing and justification.
    • Animals have rights and cannot give informed consent, so their use in research is subject to ethical guidelines.

    Theory and Hypotheses

    • A theory is a systematic way of explaining observations and making predictions.
    • A hypothesis is a specific prediction made based on a theory.
    • Variables can be categorical, continuous, or nominal, and must be operationalized in a study.

    Reliability and Validity

    • Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure, whether it produces similar results over time or across different observers.
    • Validity refers to whether a measure assesses what it claims to measure.
    • Internal validity refers to the soundness of a study's design, while external validity refers to the generalizability of the findings.

    Measurement and Data

    • Measurement involves assigning numbers to variables to make them quantifiable.
    • Data can be nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio, depending on the level of measurement.

    Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Design

    • Experimental design involves manipulating an independent variable and measuring its effect on a dependent variable.
    • Quasi-experimental design is similar, but lacks random assignment to conditions.

    Critical Thinking and Science

    • Scepticism is essential in science, involving critical evaluation of assumptions and evidence.
    • Empiricism involves testing hypotheses through observation and experimentation.
    • The context of justification involves testing hypotheses and theories, while the context of discovery involves generating hypotheses and theories.### Independent and Dependent Variables
    • In an experiment, the independent variable is the factor that is manipulated or changed by the experimenter between groups of subjects.
    • The independent variable is independent of the control of the participants in an experiment.
    • In a study, the independent variable (IV) is the factor that is manipulated or changed by the experimenter, while the dependent variable (DV) is the response made to the independent variable.

    Experimental and Control Groups

    • Participants who are in the group that experiences a neutral condition in relation to the independent variable (i.e., who have not been exposed to the experimental condition) are said to be in the control group.
    • Any condition that involves exposure to some level of the independent variable is an experimental condition.
    • In an experiment, participants who receive the experimental condition are in the experimental group, while those who do not receive the experimental condition are in the control group.

    Research Design

    • A double-blind study is one in which both the participants and the researchers who interact with them do not know who has been exposed to which experimental condition until the research is completed.
    • Random assignment of participants to the experimental and control groups is essential for internal validity because participants in each group are unlikely to differ in some systematic way.
    • Demand characteristics are the ways in which participants' perceptions of the researcher's goals affect their responses in an experiment.

    Operationalizing Variables

    • Operationalizing a variable involves turning an abstract concept into a concrete variable by clearly defining its meaning.
    • In a study, an independent variable can be operationalized by manipulating the level of the variable to see its effect on a dependent variable.

    Confounding Variables

    • A confounding variable is one that can influence the results but was not intended to be included in the study.
    • Confounding variables can compromise the internal validity of the study by confounding the effects of the independent variable.

    Statistical Analysis

    • Descriptive statistics are used to summarize the essential features of a data set.
    • Inferential statistics are used to determine whether the relationship between the independent and dependent variable is meaningful and unlikely to have been caused by chance.

    Experimental Design

    • A study is best described as experimental if it involves random assignment of participants to groups and manipulation of the independent variable.
    • Quasi-experimental designs do not involve random assignment of participants to groups.
    • Correlational designs involve measuring the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating the independent variable.

    Scientific Approach to Research

    • The scientific approach has three main goals: description, prediction, and understanding
    • Description involves summarizing data to make it easily understood
    • Prediction involves using research outcomes to identify what would happen in the future
    • Understanding involves identifying the causal factors that led to the research results

    Theory and Hypothesis

    • A theory is a systematic way of organising and explaining observations
    • A hypothesis is a tentative belief about the relationship between two or more variables
    • A hypothesis predicts the findings that should be observed if a theory is correct

    Measurement

    • Measurement is the means of turning a concept into a numerical value
    • Measurement is useful in psychological research, but not always possible for abstract variables
    • For complex variables, multiple measures may be required to obtain accurate information

    Population and Sample

    • Investigators conduct research to better understand the behaviour of a population
    • A population is the larger group of people to whom research findings should be applicable
    • A sample is a subgroup of the population that is likely to be representative of the population as a whole
    • Generalisability refers to the ability to infer something about a larger population from the behaviours of a subset of that population

    Experimentation

    • In an experiment, the researcher manipulates the independent variable and measures the effect on the dependent variable
    • The dependent variable is measured by the researcher
    • The different levels or variations of the independent variable are referred to as conditions
    • To operationalise the variables means to turn abstract concepts into concrete variables defined by a set of actions or operations

    Control Group and Confounding Variables

    • The purpose of a control group is to have a group that acts as a comparison group
    • A confounding variable is a variable that could produce effects that are confused with the effects of the independent variable
    • The presence of confounding variables compromises the internal validity of a study

    Experimental Design

    • Single-blind experiments involve keeping participants unaware of which experimental condition they are experiencing
    • Experiments provide the cleanest findings of any method of psychological research because experimenters can manipulate variables one at a time and observe the effects of each

    Case Studies and Survey Research

    • Case studies are useful for studying complex phenomena not easily reproduced experimentally
    • Random sampling helps to overcome any systematic bias in participants' responses
    • A stratified random sample reflects the proportion drawn from each population category

    Correlation and Causality

    • A correlation coefficient measures the extent to which two variables are co-related
    • A negative correlation between two variables means that the higher a subject scores on one variable, the lower they will score on the other
    • Correlation does not imply causation

    Neuro-Imaging and Ethics

    • Modern neuro-imaging techniques use computer programs to transform data from brain scans into images
    • Deception is considered useful in a study when demand characteristics would influence the results of an important study
    • Ethics in research with animals balances the costs to the animal against the benefits to humanity

    Critical Thinking

    • The three principles underpinning critical thinking are scepticism, objectivity, and open-mindedness### Consistency and Reliability
    • A test provides consistent results each time it is used, which is important for reliability.
    • There are different types of reliability: test-retest, internal consistency, and interrater reliability, and all are important in their own context.

    Validity

    • A study has external validity if its findings can be generalized to situations outside the laboratory.
    • External validity means that the study's findings can be applied to the entire population of interest to the researcher.
    • Generalisability refers to the applicability of the findings to the entire population of interest to the researcher.

    Measures and Prediction

    • A central characteristic of a valid measure is that it can predict other variables with which it should be related theoretically.
    • A measure is valid if it can predict other variables with which it should be related theoretically.

    Research Methods

    • In an experiment, the investigator focuses on manipulated variables and their effects on behaviour, is interested in cause-effect relationships, and manipulates some factor.
    • Psychology takes an empirical approach to research that involves the rigorous testing of theories using methods that can be replicated.

    Notable Studies

    • The Harlow study found that infant monkeys were drawn to their mothers by the security and comfort provided, not by the mother's role as a source of food.
    • The study showed that attachment is not just about nourishment, but also about security and comfort.

    Placebo Effect and Statistics

    • A placebo effect occurs when simply believing that a treatment is effective has an impact.
    • Inferential statistics help draw conclusions about a population from what happens to a sample.

    Research Methods

    • An experiment compares student GPAs between those who eat breakfast and those who don't, but the two groups also differ in terms of who listens to music, making music a confounding variable.
    • Descriptive statistics are used to summarize the essential features of a data set.
    • Inferential statistics are used to determine whether the relationship between the independent and dependent variables is meaningful and unlikely to have been caused by chance.
    • Experimental research involves manipulating some aspect of a situation (the independent variable) and examining the impact on the way participants respond (the dependent variable).
    • Dependent variables are the responses of participants that depend on their exposure to the independent variable.
    • Confounding variables are variables that can produce effects that are confused with the effects of the independent variable, compromising the internal validity of a study.
    • Single-blind study is a study where participants are kept unaware of the goals of the research, but the experimenter is not.
    • Experimental methods are used to establish cause and effect directly.
    • Quasi-experimental research shares many of the features of experimental research, except that random assignment to conditions is not possible.
    • Descriptive research attempts to describe psychological phenomena rather than manipulate variables.
    • Survey research is a type of descriptive research that involves asking people about their attitudes, thoughts, or behaviors.
    • Stratified random sampling is a method of selecting participants where the proportion of each category is specified and then participants are randomly selected from each category.
    • Naturalistic observation is the in-depth observation of a phenomenon in its natural setting.
    • Case study involves in-depth observation and study of one person or a small group of individuals.

    Correlation and Causation

    • Correlational research examines the relationship between two or more variables to determine if they are related.

    • A correlation coefficient of zero means that the variables are unrelated.

    • A correlation coefficient of +1.0 or -1.0 means that the variables are perfectly related.

    • Correlation does not imply causation.

    • A positron emission tomography (PET) scan is a neuroimaging method that requires injection of a small quantity of radioactive glucose into the bloodstream.

    • A computerised axial tomography (CAT) scan is a technique that involves the rotation of an x-ray machine around the head to generate a picture of the brain.### Neuroimaging Techniques

    • Positron emission tomography (PET) scan involves injecting radioactive glucose into the bloodstream, which is used by neurons for energy, and tracking its use through the brain.

    • PET scan is used to study neural activity, such as observing activity levels in various parts of the brain.

    • Computerised axial tomography (CAT) scan involves rotating an x-ray tube around a person's head and combining x-ray pictures into a composite visual image of the brain using computer software.

    Electrophysiology

    • Electroencephalogram (EEG) measures electrical activity on the outer layers of the brain (near the skull) by placing electrodes on the scalp.
    • EEG is used to study neural activity, such as reading, by measuring electrical activity produced by nerve cells firing.

    Research Design

    • A positive correlation between two variables means that the higher individuals measure on one variable, the higher they are likely to measure on the other.
    • Correlation does not necessarily imply causation; an underlying aspect of personality may explain the outcome.

    Ethics in Research

    • Informed consent requires participants to be aware that they are free to withdraw from the research at any time.
    • Researchers must consider the benefits of the research and balance them against any suffering inflicted on non-human animals used in the research.
    • Deception is permitted in research only if the study is important enough to warrant it, and participants must be debriefed afterwards.

    Critical Thinking

    • A straw man argument is a fallacy that involves destroying an alternative (often simplified) argument to strengthen one's own argument.
    • An appeal to authority is a fallacy that involves arguing that an argument must be true because of the authority of the person making it.
    • Scepticism involves questioning assumptions or conclusions and analyzing whether the evidence presented supports the results.

    Research Methods

    • The context of discovery involves descriptive research methods and allows an exploration of the nature of a phenomenon.
    • The context of justification involves testing hypotheses and theories using experimental, quasi-experimental, and correlational methods.

    Abnormal Psychology

    Thomas Szasz's View

    • According to Thomas Szasz, a person should only be treated for mental illness if they consider their symptoms a problem.

    Psychopathology

    • Refers to problematic patterns of thought, feeling or behaviour that disrupt an individual's sense of well-being, social or occupational functioning.

    Psychoses

    • Are chronic and severe disturbances that substantially inhibit the capacity to love and to work.
    • Can involve a loss of touch with reality (e.g., hearing voices, believing in conspiracy theories).

    Psychodynamic Psychology

    • Asks three questions to create a set of hypotheses about a patient's personality structure and meaning of their symptoms:
      1. What does the patient wish for and fear?
      2. What psychological resources does the person have at their disposal?
      3. How does the patient experience themselves and others?

    Aetiology of Psychoses and Neuroses

    • Psychoses result primarily from biological abnormalities.
    • Neuroses and personality disorders stem more from environmental experiences.

    Cognitive-Behavioural Practitioners

    • Integrate an understanding of:
      1. Classical conditioning
      2. Operant conditioning
      3. Cognitive-social perspective

    Biological Approach

    • Looks for the roots of mental disorders in:
      1. Genetic factors
      2. Brain regions
      3. Brain circuitry

    Systems Approach

    • Examines the physical and psychological limits of the family and its subsystems.
    • Includes looking at family boundaries.

    Clinical Syndromes

    • Constellations of symptoms that tend to occur together.

    Diathesis-Stress Model

    • Proposes that people with an underlying vulnerability may develop a disorder under stressful circumstances.

    Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

    • Characterized by impulsiveness, inattention, and hyperactivity.

    Schizophrenia

    • Heritability estimated at 83%.
    • Positive symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, loose associations.
    • Negative symptoms: blunted emotional response, lack of motivation, socially inappropriate behaviour, and intellectual impairment.

    Dopamine Hypothesis

    • Suggests that individuals with schizophrenia have excess dopamine in subcortical circuits.

    Environmental Variables

    • Expressed emotion (criticism, hostility, emotional over-involvement) can contribute to the onset and course of schizophrenia.

    Mood Disorders

    • Depression is likely to be associated with anxiety disorders.
    • Women are more likely to suffer from depression than men.

    Cognitive Distortions

    • Mechanisms by which a depressed person transforms neutral or positive information in a depressive direction.

    Generalised Anxiety Disorder

    • Characterized by persistent anxiety at a moderate but disturbing level and excessive and unrealistic worry about life circumstances.

    Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

    • More likely to develop in veterans with lower IQ.

    Panic Disorder

    • Characterized by attacks of intense fear and feelings of doom or terror not justified by the situation.

    Eating Disorders

    • Binge eating disorder is a new disorder included in the DSM-5.

    Personality Disorders

    • Chronic and severe disturbances that substantially inhibit the capacity to love and to work.
    • Examples include borderline, histrionic, and schizotypal personality disorders.

    Schizoaffective Disorder

    • A diagnostic category used to describe individuals who seem to have attributes of both schizophrenia and psychotic depression.

    Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)

    • More frequent during the winter months due to lack of sunlight.

    Conduct Disorder

    • A disturbance of childhood characterized by persistent violation of societal norms and the rights of others.

    Schizophrenia Onset

    • Most forms of schizophrenia begin in the late teens and early twenties.### Amphetamines and Psychosis

    • Amphetamines increase dopamine activity, leading to psychotic-like symptoms such as paranoia and hallucinations in normal people when taken in high doses.

    Major Depressive Episodes

    • Major depressive episodes typically last about 5 months.

    Mania Symptoms

    • Symptoms of mania include an inflated sense of self, racing thoughts, and a constant need to talk.
    • People during a manic episode are not persistent, and their thoughts and behavior jump from one thing to another.

    Bipolar Disorder

    • Bipolar disorder is characterized by periods of mania and depression.
    • Individuals with bipolar disorder experience both depression and mania.

    Psychodynamic Theories of Depression

    • Psychodynamic theories of depression focus on motivation, including identification with a depressed or belittling parent or an attachment history that predisposes fear of rejection or abandonment.

    Compulsions and Obsessions

    • Compulsions include counting, hand washing, and touching.
    • Repetitive thoughts are an obsession, not a compulsion.
    • Substance-related disorders are characterized by continued use of a substance that negatively affects psychological and social functioning.

    Personality Disorders

    • Borderline personality disorder is more prevalent in women.
    • Antisocial personality disorder is more prevalent in men.

    Labelling Theory

    • Labelling theory suggests that a diagnosis of mental illness is simply a way to categorize individuals whom a society considers deviant.

    Psychodynamic Formulation

    • A psychodynamic formulation is a set of hypotheses about a patient's personality structure and the meaning of the symptom, used to assess psychopathology.

    Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy

    • Cognitive-behavioural therapists integrate an understanding of classical and operant conditioning with a cognitive-social perspective.

    Family Systems Model

    • Family systems model suggests that families use homoeostatic mechanisms to preserve equilibrium.

    Hallucinations and Schizophrenia

    • Hallucinations are perceptual experiences that distort or occur without external stimulus, and are common in individuals suffering from schizophrenia.
    • Auditory hallucinations (hearing voices) are the most frequent kind experienced by people suffering from schizophrenia.

    Mania

    • Mania is characterized by a period of abnormally elevated or expansive mood, during which an individual has an inflated sense of self that reaches grandiose proportions.
    • During a manic episode, people generally require less sleep, experience their thoughts as racing, and feel a constant need to talk.

    Abnormal Psychology

    Thomas Szasz's View

    • According to Thomas Szasz, a person should only be treated for mental illness if they consider their symptoms a problem.

    Psychopathology

    • Refers to problematic patterns of thought, feeling or behaviour that disrupt an individual's sense of well-being, social or occupational functioning.

    Psychoses

    • Are chronic and severe disturbances that substantially inhibit the capacity to love and to work.
    • Can involve a loss of touch with reality (e.g., hearing voices, believing in conspiracy theories).

    Psychodynamic Psychology

    • Asks three questions to create a set of hypotheses about a patient's personality structure and meaning of their symptoms:
      1. What does the patient wish for and fear?
      2. What psychological resources does the person have at their disposal?
      3. How does the patient experience themselves and others?

    Aetiology of Psychoses and Neuroses

    • Psychoses result primarily from biological abnormalities.
    • Neuroses and personality disorders stem more from environmental experiences.

    Cognitive-Behavioural Practitioners

    • Integrate an understanding of:
      1. Classical conditioning
      2. Operant conditioning
      3. Cognitive-social perspective

    Biological Approach

    • Looks for the roots of mental disorders in:
      1. Genetic factors
      2. Brain regions
      3. Brain circuitry

    Systems Approach

    • Examines the physical and psychological limits of the family and its subsystems.
    • Includes looking at family boundaries.

    Clinical Syndromes

    • Constellations of symptoms that tend to occur together.

    Diathesis-Stress Model

    • Proposes that people with an underlying vulnerability may develop a disorder under stressful circumstances.

    Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

    • Characterized by impulsiveness, inattention, and hyperactivity.

    Schizophrenia

    • Heritability estimated at 83%.
    • Positive symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, loose associations.
    • Negative symptoms: blunted emotional response, lack of motivation, socially inappropriate behaviour, and intellectual impairment.

    Dopamine Hypothesis

    • Suggests that individuals with schizophrenia have excess dopamine in subcortical circuits.

    Environmental Variables

    • Expressed emotion (criticism, hostility, emotional over-involvement) can contribute to the onset and course of schizophrenia.

    Mood Disorders

    • Depression is likely to be associated with anxiety disorders.
    • Women are more likely to suffer from depression than men.

    Cognitive Distortions

    • Mechanisms by which a depressed person transforms neutral or positive information in a depressive direction.

    Generalised Anxiety Disorder

    • Characterized by persistent anxiety at a moderate but disturbing level and excessive and unrealistic worry about life circumstances.

    Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

    • More likely to develop in veterans with lower IQ.

    Panic Disorder

    • Characterized by attacks of intense fear and feelings of doom or terror not justified by the situation.

    Eating Disorders

    • Binge eating disorder is a new disorder included in the DSM-5.

    Personality Disorders

    • Chronic and severe disturbances that substantially inhibit the capacity to love and to work.
    • Examples include borderline, histrionic, and schizotypal personality disorders.

    Schizoaffective Disorder

    • A diagnostic category used to describe individuals who seem to have attributes of both schizophrenia and psychotic depression.

    Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)

    • More frequent during the winter months due to lack of sunlight.

    Conduct Disorder

    • A disturbance of childhood characterized by persistent violation of societal norms and the rights of others.

    Schizophrenia Onset

    • Most forms of schizophrenia begin in the late teens and early twenties.### Amphetamines and Psychosis

    • Amphetamines increase dopamine activity, leading to psychotic-like symptoms such as paranoia and hallucinations in normal people when taken in high doses.

    Major Depressive Episodes

    • Major depressive episodes typically last about 5 months.

    Mania Symptoms

    • Symptoms of mania include an inflated sense of self, racing thoughts, and a constant need to talk.
    • People during a manic episode are not persistent, and their thoughts and behavior jump from one thing to another.

    Bipolar Disorder

    • Bipolar disorder is characterized by periods of mania and depression.
    • Individuals with bipolar disorder experience both depression and mania.

    Psychodynamic Theories of Depression

    • Psychodynamic theories of depression focus on motivation, including identification with a depressed or belittling parent or an attachment history that predisposes fear of rejection or abandonment.

    Compulsions and Obsessions

    • Compulsions include counting, hand washing, and touching.
    • Repetitive thoughts are an obsession, not a compulsion.
    • Substance-related disorders are characterized by continued use of a substance that negatively affects psychological and social functioning.

    Personality Disorders

    • Borderline personality disorder is more prevalent in women.
    • Antisocial personality disorder is more prevalent in men.

    Labelling Theory

    • Labelling theory suggests that a diagnosis of mental illness is simply a way to categorize individuals whom a society considers deviant.

    Psychodynamic Formulation

    • A psychodynamic formulation is a set of hypotheses about a patient's personality structure and the meaning of the symptom, used to assess psychopathology.

    Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy

    • Cognitive-behavioural therapists integrate an understanding of classical and operant conditioning with a cognitive-social perspective.

    Family Systems Model

    • Family systems model suggests that families use homoeostatic mechanisms to preserve equilibrium.

    Hallucinations and Schizophrenia

    • Hallucinations are perceptual experiences that distort or occur without external stimulus, and are common in individuals suffering from schizophrenia.
    • Auditory hallucinations (hearing voices) are the most frequent kind experienced by people suffering from schizophrenia.

    Mania

    • Mania is characterized by a period of abnormally elevated or expansive mood, during which an individual has an inflated sense of self that reaches grandiose proportions.
    • During a manic episode, people generally require less sleep, experience their thoughts as racing, and feel a constant need to talk.

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    This quiz covers the three main goals of the scientific approach to research, including description, prediction, and understanding. Learn how these goals are achieved in research studies.

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