Psychology Chapter 2: Brain and Cognition
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Questions and Answers

What is the "Opera Hypothesis" according to Patel (2011)?

  • Music training improves the processing of semantic content in speech.
  • Music training improves the ability to process emotional content in speech.
  • Music training improves the ability to process the structure of musical sequences.
  • Music training improves speech perception by increasing the precision of brain networks processing acoustic features. (correct)

    • What is a potential critique of the study by Lindstrom (2011) about brain activity associated with love for iPhones?

  • The study lacks a control group.
  • The study relies on self-reported data, which is subjective.
  • The study fails to consider the potential role of other brain regions in experiences of love.
  • The study relies on the assumption that insular cortex activation is only associated with feelings of love. (correct)

    • Why is it difficult to directly link specific brain regions to specific mental functions?

  • The brain is not made up of clearly separable parts.
  • Mental functions are complex and involve distributed brain networks.
  • Brain activity is constantly changing.
  • All of the above. (correct)

    • What is the main takeaway from the cognitive revolution in relation to understanding cognition?

    <p>The importance of focusing on mental processes and representations. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main benefit of musical training for speech perception according to the Opera Hypothesis?

    <p>Increased precision in processing acoustic features. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following brain regions is associated with speech production?

    <p>Broca's area (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of the 'Opera Hypothesis' is NOT directly linked to the brain?

    <p>Repetition (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a key region mentioned in the text that relates to brain structure and function?

    <p>Hippocampus (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of using a baseline condition in ERP experiments?

    <p>To compare brain activity before and after a stimulus is presented. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between brain training and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)?

    <p>Brain training focuses on improving specific cognitive functions, while TMS stimulates or inhibits brain activity. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the "gold standard" for research on brain training effectiveness?

    <p>A study that uses a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial design. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main finding of the study by Nouchi et al. (2013) regarding the effects of Tetris training?

    <p>Tetris training specifically improved participants' attention and visuospatial abilities. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements accurately reflects the current state of research on brain training effectiveness?

    <p>Brain training has been shown to improve performance on trained tasks but there is limited evidence for generalization to other tasks. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements best describes the concept of "brain plasticity"?

    <p>The ability of the brain to change its structure and function in response to experience. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the N400 component in event-related potentials (ERP)?

    <p>It reflects the processing of semantic information. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the studies reviewed by Lampit, Valenzuela, and Gates (2015) and Ratner and Atkinson (2015)?

    <p>The studies had different conclusions about the effectiveness of brain training. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary method used to measure brain activity in an fMRI scan?

    <p>Analyzing blood flow patterns (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Broca's aphasia is characterized by _____.

    <p>Intact comprehension but impaired speech production (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about phrenology is TRUE?

    <p>Phrenology was based on the idea that the size of brain regions corresponded to mental abilities. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the case of Phineas Gage demonstrate about the brain?

    <p>The frontal lobe is crucial for emotional control and personality. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a limitation of fMRI?

    <p>It does not directly measure neuronal activity, but rather infers activity based on blood flow. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the corpus callosum?

    <p>To connect the two hemispheres of the brain. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is TRUE about split-brain patients?

    <p>They often exhibit a lack of integration between the hemispheres, especially in tasks involving language. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using an EEG to study brain activity?

    <p>It can track the precise timing of brain activity. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the 'dead salmon study' an example of?

    <p>The need for careful statistical correction in fMRI studies to avoid false positives. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a common criticism of localization theories of brain function?

    <p>They oversimplify the complex interplay of brain regions in higher cognitive functions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a noninvasive technique for studying brain function?

    <p>Both EEG and TMS. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between a CAT scan and an MRI?

    <p>CAT scans use radiation, while MRIs use magnetic fields. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a key assumption behind the interpretation of fMRI signals?

    <p>Brain activity is directly proportional to blood flow. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using a control condition in an fMRI experiment?

    <p>To measure the baseline level of brain activity. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a challenge to the concept of brain localization?

    <p>The development of new brain imaging techniques. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main focus of study in the field of cognitive neuroscience?

    <p>The relationship between brain activity and mental processes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Flashcards

    Prefrontal Cortex

    A brain region involved in complex cognitive behavior and decision making.

    Broca's Area

    A region in the frontal lobe linked to speech production.

    Wernicke's Area

    A region involved in the comprehension of language.

    Corpus Callosum

    The structure connecting the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

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    Neural Substrate

    The brain's physical structure that supports cognitive processes.

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    Cognitive Revolution

    A movement that emphasized understanding mental processes behind behavior.

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    Opera Hypothesis

    Theory explaining why musical training aids in speech perception.

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    Insular Cortex

    A brain region associated with emotions, including love and disgust.

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    Localization of Function

    The idea that specific areas of the brain are responsible for different functions.

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    Phrenology

    A discredited theory connecting mental abilities to the sizes of brain areas.

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    Aphasia

    Language disruption caused by brain damage, often due to a stroke.

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    Broca’s Aphasia

    A type of aphasia with good comprehension but poor speech production.

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    Wernicke’s Aphasia

    A type of aphasia that results in fluent but nonsensical speech.

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    Higher-Order Cognitive Processes

    Complex mental activities that are interconnected instead of localized.

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    Brain Plasticity

    The brain's ability to adapt and reorganize itself after injury.

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    Brain Lateralization

    The division of functions between the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

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    Functional MRI (fMRI)

    A technique that measures brain activity by monitoring blood flow.

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    Voxel

    The smallest unit of measurement in a brain scan used in fMRI.

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    Electroencephalography (EEG)

    A method that records electrical activity in the brain using electrodes.

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    Event-Related Potentials (ERP)

    Electrically measured brain responses to specific stimuli.

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    Phineas Gage

    A patient known for surviving a brain injury that changed his personality.

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    Multiple Comparisons

    The risk of false positives when testing numerous hypotheses.

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    P3 Component (N400)

    A greater P3 response occurs with semantically surprising information in ERPs.

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    Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

    A technique using magnetic fields to stimulate or inhibit specific brain circuits.

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    Cognitive Improvement through Training

    The theory that brain functioning can be enhanced through specialized training programs.

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    Nouchi et al. (2013)

    Study comparing cognitive performance of brain age and Tetris groups pre and post-test.

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    Gold Standard in Research

    A double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial design that is the most reliable for studies.

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    Effectiveness of Brain Training

    Evidence shows training improves performance on trained tasks, but less on related or unrelated tasks.

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    Study Notes

    Chapter 2: Brain and Cognition

    • Research on the brain informs the study of cognition, exploring how different levels of explanation describe brain function.
    • Memorize key brain regions and their functions including the prefrontal cortex, Broca's area, Wernicke's area, and the corpus callosum.
    • Skim the brain structure section, but do not memorize figures 2.1, 2.2, or 2.3. You will not need to label diagrams on the test.
    • The neural substrate is the hardware that enables cognitive processes.
    • Understanding the brain's role in supporting cognition and how cognitive processes unfold in the brain is important.
    • Neural activity correlates with specific cognitive operations, not all brain processes are localized or independent.
    • Brain activity is often distributed over interconnected networks. For example, listening uses distributed networks; similar tasks share resources.

    Levels of Representation/Analysis

    • The cognitive revolution shifted focus from behaviour to mental processes and representations.

    Neural Substrate

    • The brain is the hardware for cognitive operations.
    • Understanding how the brain supports cognition and cognitive processes is important.
    • Neural activity correlates with some cognitive operations.
    • It can be inferred that a certain region of the brain is responsible for a particular function, but specific regions are not always mapped clearly to specific mental operations.
    • During tasks, activity is spread out across networks of brain regions (ex: Listening).

    The Opera Hypothesis

    • Patel (2011) explains how musical training benefits speech perception.
      • Overlap: Brain networks for processing acoustic features are shared by music and speech.
      • Precision: Music requires more detailed information than speech. Speech uses context-based cues to reduce needed precision.
      • Emotion: Positive emotional reward through performance.
      • Repetition: Extensive practice increases precision.
      • Attention: Processing acoustic features by dedicating more area of the brain.
      • Increased precision occurs in neural networks that process acoustic features compared to what is needed for speech communication.

    Assertions in Neuroscience

    • "You love your iPhone. Literally" (Lidstrom, 2011) notes intense insular cortex brain activity during feelings of love.
    • Insular cortex activity also occurs in non-love scenarios (ex:disgust)
    • Brain structure to function correlation is very complex.

    Localization of Function: Phrenology

    • Faculty Psychology: Mental abilities are autonomous and independent functions.
    • Franz Gall (1758-1828) and his student Johann Spurzheim were early proponents.
    • Their theory proposed precise correlations between brain area sizes and psychological strengths/weaknesses.
    • Phrenology's methodology failed. Different faculties are not independent, and brain region size does not equate to function.

    Localization of Function: Brain Damage

    • Brain damage effects functions, as evident in Phineas Gage's case (1848).
    • Gage survived but experienced drastic personality changes after a railway spike traversed his prefrontal cortex.
    • This localized a key function to a specific region.

    Aphasia

    • Aphasia is language disruption from brain damage (most common after a stroke/ accident)
    • Autopsies of patients with specific language problems exposed damage to specific brain regions.
      • Broca's aphasia affects speech production, comprehension is relatively intact
      • Wernicke's aphasia affects comprehension, producing fluent but nonsensical speech

    Challenging Localization of Function

    • Variations among individuals in function locations (e.g. language regions).
    • Differences in comprehension and production are complex.
    • Highest level cognitive functions are distributed across many brain regions rather than localized to a single region.
    • Brain plasticity demonstrates regions may take over functions of damaged regions.

    Brain Lateralization

    • Cerebral hemispheres specialize.
    • The left hemisphere usually dominates language.
    • The right hemisphere handles auditory and visual processes.
    • These hemispheres interact, processing information through the corpus callosum, a bundle of neural fibers.

    Studies of Split-Brained Patients

    • Severed corpus callosum patients demonstrate surprisingly small disruption in typical behaviors.
    • Information received by the left hand (processed by the right hemisphere) could not be named. Right hemisphere could comprehend and pick out specific objects but not name them.
    • Similar results were found for intermodal integration (visual-tactile).

    Techniques for Studying the Brain

    • Noninvasive methods to study the brain's function in normal brains
    • Understanding brain imaging techniques and electrical recordings is instrumental.

    Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

    • Similar to CAT scans, showing brain slices.
    • MRI offers clearer images without radiation.
    • Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to generate images of organs/tissues.
    • Provides static (non-moving) brain pictures.

    Functional MRI (fMRI)

    • Maps brain activity during various functions.
    • Different conditions elicit different neural patterns implicating underlying processes.
    • Does not offer information on timing of activity, measures hemodynamic changes, or blood flow.
    • Increased blood flow or oxygen infer brain activity.

    Interpreting fMRI Signal

    • Assumptions: hemodynamics reflect activity. Consistent blood flow changes following stimulation indicate relevant brain area recruitment.
    • Experimental control conditions are critical.
    • Multiple areas of the brain may show activity unrelated to the cognitive process being studied. Compare experimental and control conditions closely.
    • Multiple comparisons need to account for the possibility of false positives.

    Electroencephalography (EEG)

    • Measures postsynaptic potentials from many neurons.
    • Detects changes in electrical voltage from neurotransmitters.
    • Provides continuous measurements of brain activity with good temporal resolution (timing), but poor spatial resolution.
    • EEG waveforms are aligned with stimuli onsets.
    • Predictable parts (components) in the waveform signal may correlate with specific processes.
    • E.g., "surprise" responses lead to increased (P3), or N400), components.

    Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

    • A magnetic coil creates a magnetic field that produces electrical current.
    • Stimulates or inhibits specific brain circuits to understand cognitive functioning.
    • Used for treating psychiatric illnesses (e.g., depression).

    Brain Training

    • Brain plasticity enables adaptation to injury.
    • Can brain training improve functions?
    • Brain training programs make claims about improving cognitive functions.
    • Experiences and environment change brain structure.
    • Enriched vs. controlled environments show different brain development.

    Examining Brain Training

    • Studies such as Nouchi et al. (2013) investigate brain training effects.
    • Reviews of studies show mixed results.
    • Gold Standard for studies: double-blind, placebo controlled randomized clinical trials.

    Does Brain Training Work?

    • Research shows improvement in task-specific performance but this does not always generalize to other cognitive functions in real-life scenarios.

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    Description

    Explore the intricate relationships between brain function and cognitive processes in this quiz on Psychology Chapter 2. Learn key brain regions, their functions, and how neural activities correlate with different cognitive operations. This chapter highlights the importance of understanding the brain's role in cognition and the interconnected networks that support mental processes.

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