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Questions and Answers
What is the term used by Freud to describe a disorder where a person does not fully resolve the conflict in a particular psychosexual stage?
What is the term used by Freud to describe a disorder where a person does not fully resolve the conflict in a particular psychosexual stage?
Which of the following is NOT one of Freud's psychosexual stages of personality development?
Which of the following is NOT one of Freud's psychosexual stages of personality development?
What concept refers to Bandura’s explanation for how environment, personal characteristics, and behavior interact?
What concept refers to Bandura’s explanation for how environment, personal characteristics, and behavior interact?
Which learning theory emphasizes the role of observational learning and self-efficacy?
Which learning theory emphasizes the role of observational learning and self-efficacy?
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Which of the following theorists is associated with Individual Psychology?
Which of the following theorists is associated with Individual Psychology?
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Self-efficacy is best described as what type of perception?
Self-efficacy is best described as what type of perception?
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Which psychologist is most associated with Operant Conditioning?
Which psychologist is most associated with Operant Conditioning?
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Which of the following concepts is central to the Social Cognitive view of personality?
Which of the following concepts is central to the Social Cognitive view of personality?
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What defines a fully functioning person in humanistic psychology?
What defines a fully functioning person in humanistic psychology?
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Which approach primarily focuses on the consistent and enduring traits of an individual?
Which approach primarily focuses on the consistent and enduring traits of an individual?
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What method did Cattell use to reduce the number of personality traits?
What method did Cattell use to reduce the number of personality traits?
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Which of the following is NOT a part of the Five-Factor Model of personality traits?
Which of the following is NOT a part of the Five-Factor Model of personality traits?
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Which of the following best describes surface traits?
Which of the following best describes surface traits?
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What is a key factor measured in personality assessments through interviews?
What is a key factor measured in personality assessments through interviews?
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What cultural dimension reflects the extent to which less powerful members expect and accept unequal power distribution?
What cultural dimension reflects the extent to which less powerful members expect and accept unequal power distribution?
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Which behavior is typically associated with individuals who score high in conscientiousness according to trait theories?
Which behavior is typically associated with individuals who score high in conscientiousness according to trait theories?
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What is the halo effect in the context of an interview?
What is the halo effect in the context of an interview?
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Which of the following best describes projective tests?
Which of the following best describes projective tests?
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What is a characteristic of the Rorschach inkblot test?
What is a characteristic of the Rorschach inkblot test?
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What is a potential drawback of using projective tests?
What is a potential drawback of using projective tests?
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What does direct observation involve in personality assessment?
What does direct observation involve in personality assessment?
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How does a personality inventory typically function?
How does a personality inventory typically function?
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Which of the following describes the projection defense mechanism?
Which of the following describes the projection defense mechanism?
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Which type of schizophrenia is characterized by bizarre behavior and disordered thinking?
Which type of schizophrenia is characterized by bizarre behavior and disordered thinking?
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Which method assesses the frequency of a specific behavior?
Which method assesses the frequency of a specific behavior?
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What is a key feature of paranoid schizophrenia?
What is a key feature of paranoid schizophrenia?
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Which personality disorder is characterized by impulsive behavior without regard for consequences?
Which personality disorder is characterized by impulsive behavior without regard for consequences?
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A person who is moody, unstable, and clings to others might be diagnosed with which disorder?
A person who is moody, unstable, and clings to others might be diagnosed with which disorder?
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What is a potential change anticipated in the DSM-5 regarding personality disorders?
What is a potential change anticipated in the DSM-5 regarding personality disorders?
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What is the primary function of the superego in personality according to Freud's theory?
What is the primary function of the superego in personality according to Freud's theory?
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Which defense mechanism involves refusing to acknowledge a threatening situation?
Which defense mechanism involves refusing to acknowledge a threatening situation?
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What is repression in the context of psychological defense mechanisms?
What is repression in the context of psychological defense mechanisms?
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Which defense mechanism is characterized by creating acceptable excuses for unacceptable behavior?
Which defense mechanism is characterized by creating acceptable excuses for unacceptable behavior?
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In which defense mechanism does a person express feelings through the opposite emotional reaction?
In which defense mechanism does a person express feelings through the opposite emotional reaction?
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What does displacement refer to in psychological terms?
What does displacement refer to in psychological terms?
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Which concept involves a person trying to emulate another person to cope with anxiety?
Which concept involves a person trying to emulate another person to cope with anxiety?
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What does compensation (substitution) cover in terms of defense mechanisms?
What does compensation (substitution) cover in terms of defense mechanisms?
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What is the main focus of the NEO-PI personality inventory?
What is the main focus of the NEO-PI personality inventory?
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What does MMPI-2 primarily aim to do?
What does MMPI-2 primarily aim to do?
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Which personality test is based on Jung's theory?
Which personality test is based on Jung's theory?
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What is one disadvantage of many online personality tests?
What is one disadvantage of many online personality tests?
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Which of the following is NOT a criterion for defining abnormal behavior?
Which of the following is NOT a criterion for defining abnormal behavior?
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What does 'maladaptive' refer to in psychological contexts?
What does 'maladaptive' refer to in psychological contexts?
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Which ancient practice was aimed at treating mental illness?
Which ancient practice was aimed at treating mental illness?
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Which of the following best describes psychopathology?
Which of the following best describes psychopathology?
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Study Notes
Introduction to Psychology
- Topics covered include theories of personality, counseling and therapy, and psychological disorders.
- The field is designed to examine how humans think, feel, and behave.
Personality
- Personality refers to unique, relatively stable ways people think, feel, and act.
- Character involves moral and ethical value judgments about a person.
- Temperament encompasses enduring qualities people inherit at birth.
Four Perspectives in Study of Personality
- Psychodynamic theories emphasize the impact of early childhood experiences and the unconscious mind. Hidden elements of the unconscious can surface through dreams, free association, and slips of the tongue.
- Behavioristic theories (including social cognitive theory) focus on observable learning, self-efficacy, situational factors, and cognitive processes. Learning and social processes are considered influential aspects of behavior.
- Humanistic theories emphasize personal growth, free will, and subjective feelings. Personal awareness and choice are central in these theories.
- Trait perspectives center on identifying, describing, and measuring specific traits composing personality, aiming to predict future actions.
Sigmund Freud
- Founder of the psychoanalytic movement in psychology.
Divisions of Consciousness
- Preconscious mind: Information available but not currently conscious.
- Conscious mind: Aware of immediate surroundings and perceptions.
- Unconscious mind: Thoughts, feelings, and memories that are not easily brought to consciousness. These can sometimes manifest in dreams and Freudian slips.
Freud's Conception of the Personality
- The personality structure is analogous to an iceberg, with the conscious mind being the visible portion, the preconscious just beneath, and the unconscious at the deepest level of the mind. The Id, ego, and superego are part of the personality and lie within the levels of consciousness.
Freud's Theory: Parts of Personality
- Id: Present at birth, completely unconscious, operates on the pleasure principle.
- Ego: Develops out of a need to deal with reality (reality principle), mostly conscious, rational, and logical.
- Superego: Acts as a moral center.
Defense Mechanisms
- Psychological defense mechanisms are unconscious distortions of reality to reduce stress and anxiety.
- Denial: Refusal to acknowledge or recognize a threatening situation.
- Repression: Unconsciously pushing threatening events or memories into the unconscious mind.
- Rationalization: Creating acceptable excuses for unacceptable behavior.
- Projection: Unacceptable impulses or feelings are attributed to others.
- Reaction formation: An emotional or behavioral reaction opposite to one's true feelings.
- Displacement: Redirecting feelings from a threatening target to a less threatening one.
- Regression: Returning to childlike patterns of responding to stressful situations.
- Identification: Imitating someone else's behavior to cope with anxiety.
- Compensation (substitution): Making up for weaknesses in one area by excelling in another.
- Sublimation: Converting unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable actions.
Freud's Theory: Stages of Personality Development
- Fixation: Failure to resolve conflicts in a psychosexual stage, can lead to associated personality traits and behaviors into adulthood.
- Psychosexual stages: Five stages of personality development tied to the sexual development of the child (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital).
OAPhaLaGE – Freud's Psychosexual Stages
- Table showing stages, ages, focus of pleasure, focus of conflict, and difficulties that can affect later life. Note these stages are not universally accepted within modern psychology.
Freud's Psychoanalysis
- Freud's term for both the theory of personality and the associated therapy.
Neo-Freudians
- Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology
- Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology
- Karen Horney: Psychoanalytical social theory
- Erik Erikson: Ego Psychology/Post Freudian Psychology
Behaviorism and Personality
- Behaviorists view personality as a set of learned responses or habits, often automatic.
- Social cognitive learning theorists underscore the influence of other people's behavior and personal expectancies on learning. These can impact future behavior.
- Reciprocal determinism: The idea that a person's behavior can interact with both personal characteristics and the environment to determine future behavior.
- Albert Bandura: Significant contributor in social learning theory.
- Ivan Pavlov: Classical conditioning
- B.F Skinner: Operant conditioning
- Self-efficacy: Belief in one's ability to succeed. It is different from self-esteem.
Counseling and Therapy
- Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT): A therapy that looks at the cycle between thoughts, feelings, and behaviors to resolve issues.
Humanistic/Existential Theories of Personality
- Focus on psychological growth, free will, and personal awareness.
- Emphasize subjective feelings and choices.
Humanistic Theories of Personality
- Developed as a reaction against the negativity of psychoanalysis and the deterministic nature of behaviorism.
Roger's Theory of Personality
- Self-actualizing tendency: The drive to reach one's full potential
- Self-concept: Image of oneself based on interactions with significant others
- Self-archetype: Works with the ego to manage other archetypes, balancing the personality.
- Real self: Perception of actual characteristics, traits, and abilities.
- Ideal self: Perception of whom one should be or want to be.
- Positive regard: Warmth, affection, love, and respect from significant others.
Logotherapy (Viktor Frankl)
- Life has meaning even in difficult circumstances.
- Our primary motivation is the will to find meaning in life.
- People have the freedom to find and create meaning from their experiences.
Trait Theories of Personality
- Focus on identifying, describing, and measuring specific traits that make up personality to predict future behaviors.
- Traits are consistent, enduring ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving
- Allport: Created a list of about 200 traits.
- Cattell: Reduced the number of traits to between 16 and 23 using factor analysis.
- Surface traits: Observable aspects of a person's behavior, often considered part of the outward expression.
- The Big Five Theory: Identifies five basic personality dimensions - Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (OCEAN).
Cultural Personality
- Cultures vary along four key dimensions: individualism/collectivism, power distance, masculinity/femininity, and uncertainty avoidance.
Measuring Personality:
- Interviews: Professionals ask questions of the client; can be structured or unstructured. Halo effect is a bias when positive characteristics alter an interviewer's impressions.
- Projective tests: Unstructured stimuli (e.g., inkblots or ambiguous pictures) to elicit responses; Rorschach inkblot test and Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). These tests can be influenced by subjective factors.
- Behavioral measures: Direct observation of behaviors; rating scales and frequency counts.
- Personality inventories: Paper and pencil tests (e.g., MMPI-2, NEO-PI, Myers-Briggs Type Indicator) with standardized responses used to assess personality traits.
- Online personality tests: Often lacking in quality, reliability, and validity; require professional interpretation of the results.
Early Explanations of Mental Illness
- In ancient times, holes were cut in people's heads to release evil spirits (trepanning).
- Hippocrates linked mental illness to imbalances in the body.
- In the Middle Ages, labeling the mentally ill as witches was a common practice.
Definitions of Abnormality
- Psychopathology: The scientific study of abnormal behavior.
- Psychological disorders encompass behaviors that cause significant distress, hinder functioning, harm oneself or others, or are statistically rare or deviate from social norms.
- Important considerations include situational context, subjective discomfort, and maladaptive behaviors.
- Sociocultural perspective highlights cultural relativity—the importance of considering cultural context—and culture-bound syndromes.
- Biological model suggests abnormal behavior originates from biological changes (chemical, structural, genetic) in the body.
Psychological Viewpoints of Psychopathology
- Psychoanalytic: Repressed conflicts and unconscious urges contributing to abnormal behavior.
- Behaviorist: Abnormal behaviors are learned responses.
- Cognitive: Irrational beliefs and illogical thoughts causing abnormal behaviors.
Types of Disorders
- Major depression is a very common mood disorder.
- Anxiety disorders include excessive or unrealistic anxiety & fear (phobias, panic attacks, OCD, PTSD, generalized anxiety).
- Mood disorders feature severe and disturbed mood (major depression, bipolar disorder). Affect is an emotional reaction.
- Eating disorders (anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa) involve extreme eating patterns.
- Dissociative disorders involve breaks in conscious awareness, memory, identity, or combinations of these.
- Schizophrenia is characterized by disordered thinking, bizarre behavior, and hallucinations, often differentiating between fantasy and reality.
- Personality disorders are persistent, rigid, and maladaptive behavior patterns interfering with normal social interaction. Examples include antisocial and borderline personality disorders.
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Test your knowledge on key concepts and theorists in personality psychology with this quiz. Questions cover Freudian stages, Bandura’s social cognitive theory, and humanistic approaches. Perfect for those studying psychology or looking to refresh their understanding of personality development theories.