Introduction to Psychology PDF

Introduction to Psychology Theories of Personality Counseling and Therapy Psychological Disorders  Personality LO 13.1 Personality Personality - the unique and relatively stable ways in which people think, feel, and behave. Character - value jud...

Introduction to Psychology Theories of Personality Counseling and Therapy Psychological Disorders  Personality LO 13.1 Personality Personality - the unique and relatively stable ways in which people think, feel, and behave. Character - value judgments of a person’s moral and ethical behavior. Temperament - the enduring characteristics with which each person is born.  Four Perspectives in Study of Personality LO 13.1 Personality Psychodynamic Behavioristic (including social cognitive theory) Humanistic Trait perspectives  Psychodynamic theories emphasizes the importance of early childhood experiences and the unconscious mind. hidden in the unconscious could be revealed in a number of different ways, including through dreams, free association, and slips of the tongue.  Sigmund Freud LO 13.2 Freud’s historical views of personality Founder of the psychoanalytic movement in psychology.  Divisions of Consciousness LO 13.2 Freud’s historical views of personality Preconscious mind - level of the mind in which information is available but not currently conscious. Conscious mind - level of the mind that is aware of immediate surroundings and perceptions. Unconscious mind - level of the mind in which thoughts, feelings, memories, and other information are kept that are not easily or voluntarily brought into consciousness. – Can be revealed in dreams and Freudian slips of the tongue. Figure 13.1 Freud’s Conception of the Personality This iceberg represents the three levels of the mind. The part of the iceberg visible above the surface is the conscious mind. Just below the surface is the preconscious mind, everything that is not yet part of the conscious mind. Hidden deep below the surface is the unconscious mind, feelings, memories, thoughts, and urges that cannot be easily brought into consciousness. While two of the three parts of the personality (ego and superego) exist at all three levels of awareness, the id is completely in the unconscious mind.  Freud’s Theory: Parts of Personality LO 13.2 Freud’s historical views of personality Id - part of the personality present at birth and completely unconscious. Ego - part of the personality that develops out of a need to deal with reality, mostly conscious, rational, and logical. Superego - part of the personality that acts as a moral center.  Defense Mechanisms LO 13.2 Freud’s historical views of personality Psychological defense mechanisms - unconscious distortions of a person’s perception of reality that reduce stress and anxiety. Denial - psychological defense mechanism in which the person refuses to acknowledge or recognize a threatening situation.  Defense Mechanisms LO 13.2 Freud’s historical views of personality Repression - psychological defense mechanism in which the person refuses to consciously remember a threatening or unacceptable event, instead pushing those events into the unconscious mind. Rationalization - psychological defense mechanism in which a person invents acceptable excuses for unacceptable behavior.  Defense Mechanisms LO 13.2 Freud’s historical views of personality Projection - psychological defense mechanism in which unacceptable or threatening impulses or feelings are seen as originating with someone else, usually the target of the impulses or feelings.  Defense Mechanisms LO 13.2 Freud’s historical views of personality Reaction formation - psychological defense mechanism in which a person forms an opposite emotional or behavioral reaction to the way he or she really feels to keep those true feelings hidden from self and others. Displacement - redirecting feelings from a threatening target to a less threatening one.  Defense Mechanisms LO 13.2 Freud’s historical views of personality Regression - psychological defense mechanism in which a person falls back on childlike patterns of responding in reaction to stressful situations. Identification - defense mechanism in which a person tries to become like someone else to deal with anxiety.  Defense Mechanisms LO 13.2 Freud’s historical views of personality Compensation (substitution) - defense mechanism in which a person makes up for inferiorities in one area by becoming superior in another area. Sublimation - channeling socially unacceptable impulses and urges into socially acceptable behavior.  Freud’s Theory: StagesLOof13.2Personality Development Freud’s historical views of personality Fixation - disorder in which the person does not fully resolve the conflict in a particular psychosexual stage, resulting in personality traits and behavior associated with that earlier stage. Psychosexual stages - five stages of personality development proposed by Freud and tied to the sexual development of the child. OAPhaLaGE  Freud’s Psychoanalysis LO 13.2 Freud’s historical views of personality Psychoanalysis - Freud’s term for both the theory of personality and the therapy based on it.  Neo-Freudians LO 13.3 Jung, Adler, Horney, and Erikson’s modifications Neo-Freudians Alfred Adler- Individual Psychology Car Jung- Analytical Psychology Karen Horney- Psychoanalytical social theory Erik Erikson- Ego Psychology/Post Freudian Psychology  Behaviorism and Personality emphasizes the importance of observational learning, self- efficacy, situational influences, and cognitive processes. LEARNING INFLUENCE SOCIAL PROCESS  Behaviorism and Personality LO 13.5 Behavioral and social cognitive explanations of personality Behaviorists define personality as a set of learned responses or habits. – Habits - in behaviorism, sets of well-learned responses that have become automatic. Social cognitive learning theorists – theorists who emphasize the importance of both the influences of other people’s behavior and of a person’s own expectancies on learning.  Behaviorist Albert Bandura- Social Learning Theory Ivan Pavlov- Classical Conditioning BF Skinner- Operant Conditioning  Behaviorism and Personality LO 13.5 Behavioral and social cognitive explanations of personality Social cognitive view – learning theory that includes cognitive processes such as anticipating, judging, memory, and imitation of models. Reciprocal determinism - Bandura’s explanation of how the factors of environment, personal characteristics, and behavior can interact to determine future behavior.  Behaviorism and Personality LO 13.5 Behavioral and social cognitive explanations of personality Self-efficacy – individual’s perception of how effective a behavior will be in any particular circumstance (NOT the same as self-esteem). Figure 13.2 Reciprocal Determinism In Bandura’s model of reciprocal determinism, three factors influence behavior: the environment, which consists of the physical surroundings and the potential for reinforcement; the person (personal/cognitive characteristics that have been rewarded in the past); and the behavior itself, which may or may not be reinforced at this particular time and place.  Counseling and Therapy Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Humanistic/Existential Theories of Personality focuses on psychological growth, free will, and personal awareness. subjective feelings and freedom of choice.  Humanistic Theories of Personality LO 13.6 How humanists explain personality Developed as a reaction against the negativity of psychoanalysis and the deterministic nature of behaviorism.  Roger’s Theory of Personality LO 13.6 How humanists explain personality Self-actualizing tendency – the striving to fulfill one’s innate capacities and capabilities. Self-concept - the image of oneself that develops from interactions with important, significant people in one’s life. Self - archetype that works with the ego to manage other archetypes and balance the personality.  Roger’s Theory of Personality LO 13.6 How humanists explain personality Real self - one’s perception of actual characteristics, traits, and abilities. Ideal self - one’s perception of whom one should be or would like to be. Positive regard – warmth, affection, love, and respect that come from significant others in one’s life. Figure 13.3 Real and Ideal Selves According to Rogers, the self-concept includes the real self and the ideal self. The real self is a person’s actual perception of traits and abilities, whereas the ideal self is the perception of what a person would like to be or thinks he or she should be. When the ideal self and the real self are very similar (matching), the person experiences harmony and contentment. When there is a mismatch between the two selves, the person experiences anxiety and may engage in neurotic behavior.  Roger’s Theory of Personality LO 13.6 How humanists explain personality Unconditional positive regard - positive regard that is given without conditions or strings attached. Conditional positive regard- positive regard that is given only when the person is doing what the providers of positive regard wish.  Roger’s Theory of Personality LO 13.6 How humanists explain personality Fully functioning person – a person who is in touch with and trusting of the deepest, innermost urges and feelings.  COUNSELING AND THERAPY PERSON CENTERED/CLIENT CENTERED LOGOTHERAPY (VICTOR FRANKL)  Trait theories of Personality entered on identifying, describing, and measuring the specific traits that make up human personality.  Trait Theories of Personality LO 13.7 Trait perspective Trait theories - theories that endeavor to describe the characteristics that make up human personality in an effort to predict future behavior. – Trait - a consistent, enduring way of thinking, feeling, or behaving. Allport first developed a list of about 200 traits and believed that these traits were part of the nervous system.  Trait Theories of Personality LO 13.7 Trait perspective Cattell reduced the number of traits to between 16 and 23 with a computer method called factor analysis. Surface traits - aspects of personality that can easily be seen by other people in the outward actions of a person. Figure 13.4 Cattell’s Self-Report Inventory This is an example of personality profiles based on Cattell’s 16PF self-report inventory. The two groups represented are airline pilots and writers. Notice that airline pilots, when compared to writers, tend to be more conscientious, relaxed, selfassured, and far less sensitive. Writers, on the other hand, are more imaginative and better able to are think abstractly. Source: Cattell (1973).  The Big Five Theory LO 13.7 Trait perspective Five-factor model (Big Five) - model of personality traits that describes five basic trait dimensions.  Cultural Personality LO 13.8 Biology, heredity and cultural roles in personality Four basic dimensions of personality along which cultures may vary: – individualism/collectivism – power distance – masculinity/femininity – uncertainty avoidance  Measuring Personality: Interviews LO 13.9 Advantages and disadvantages of various measure of personality Interview - method of personality assessment in which the professional asks questions of the client and allows the client to answer, either in a structured or unstructured fashion. Halo effect – tendency of an interviewer to allow positive characteristics of a client to influence the assessments of the client’s behavior and statements.  Measuring Personality: Projective Tests LO 13.9 Advantages and disadvantages of various measure of personality Projection - defense mechanism involving placing, or "projecting," one’s own unacceptable thoughts onto others, as if the thoughts actually belonged to those others and not to oneself. Projective tests - personality assessments that present ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and ask the client to respond with whatever comes to mind.  Measuring Personality: Projective Tests LO 13.9 Advantages and disadvantages of various measure of personality Rorschach inkblot test - projective test that uses 10 inkblots as the ambiguous stimuli. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) - projective test that uses 20 pictures of people in ambiguous situations as the visual stimuli. Figure 13.7 Thematic Apperception Test Example A sample from the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). When you look at this picture, what story does it suggest to you? Who are the people? What is their relationship?  Measuring Personality: Projective Tests LO 13.9 Advantages and disadvantages of various measure of personality Subjective - concepts and impressions that are only valid within a particular person’s perception and may be influenced by biases, prejudice, and personal experiences. This is a problem with projective tests.  Measuring Personality: Behavioral Measures LO 13.9 Advantages and disadvantages of various measure of personality Direct observation - assessment in which the professional observes the client engaged in ordinary, day-to-day behavior in either a clinical or natural setting. Rating scale- assessment in which a numerical value is assigned to specific behavior that is listed in the scale.  Measuring Personality: Behavioral Measures LO 13.9 Advantages and disadvantages of various measure of personality Frequency count - assessment in which the frequency of a particular behavior is counted.  Measuring Personality: Personality Inventory LO 13.9 Advantages and disadvantages of various measure of personality Personality inventory - paper and pencil or computerized test that consists of statements that require a specific, standardized response from the person taking the test. – NEO-PI - based on the five-factor model – Myers-Briggs Type Indicator - based on Jung’s theory of personality types.  Measuring Personality: Personality Inventory LO 13.9 Advantages and disadvantages of various measure of personality Personality inventory - paper and pencil or computerized test that consists of statements that require a specific, standardized response from the person taking the test. – MMPI-2 - designed to detect abnormal personality.  Personality Tests and Internet LO 13.9 Advantages and disadvantages of various measure of personality There are numerous personality tests available on the Internet. Not all equal in quality, reliability, or validity. Lack of professional interpretation of the results of such tests.  psychology third edition CHAPTER Psychology, Third Edition Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White All rights reserved.  Early Explanations of Mental Illness LO 14.1 Explanations of mental illness and defining abnormal behavior In ancient times holes were cut in an ill person’s head to let out evil spirits in a process called trepanning. Hippocrates believed that mental illness came from an imbalance in the body. In the Middle Ages, the mentally ill were labeled as witches.  Definitions of Abnormality LO 14.1 Explanations of mental illness and defining abnormal behavior Psychopathology - the study of abnormal behavior. Psychological disorders - any pattern of behavior that causes people significant distress, causes them to harm others, or harms their ability to function in daily life. – Statistically rare – Deviant from social norms  Definitions of Abnormality LO 14.1 Explanations of mental illness and defining abnormal behavior Situational context - the social or environmental setting of a person’s behavior. – Subjective discomfort - emotional distress or emotional pain. – Maladaptive - anything that does not allow a person to function within or adapt to the stresses and everyday demands of life.  Definitions of Abnormality LO 14.1 Explanations of mental illness and defining abnormal behavior Sociocultural Perspective – Cultural relativity - the need to consider the unique characteristics of the culture in which behavior takes place. – Culture-Bound Syndromes - disorders found only in particular cultures.  Biology and Psychopathology LO 14.2 How disorders relate to biological and psychological models Biological model – model of explaining behavior as caused by biological changes in the chemical, structural, or genetic systems of the body.  Psychological Viewpoints of Psychopathology LO 14.2 How disorders relate to biological and psychological models Psychoanalytic theorists - assume that abnormal behavior stems from repressed conflicts and urges that are fighting to become conscious. Behaviorists - see abnormal behavior as learned. Cognitive theorists - see abnormal behavior as coming from irrational beliefs and illogical patterns of thought.  Types of Disorders LO 14.3 Types of psychological disorders Major depression is one of the most common psychological disorders worldwide.  Anxiety Disorders LO 14.4 Types and symptoms of anxiety disorders Anxiety disorders - disorders in which the main symptom is excessive or unrealistic anxiety and fearfulness. Phobia (e.g. social phobia) Panic Disorders Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Generalized anxiety disorder  Mood Disorders LO 14.5 Types of mood disorders and their causes Affect - in psychology, an emotional reaction. Mood disorders - disorders in which mood is severely disturbed. – Major depression - severe depression that comes on suddenly and seems to have no external cause.  Mood Disorders LO 14.5 Types of mood disorders and their causes Mood disorders - disorders in which mood is severely disturbed. – Manic - having the quality of excessive excitement, energy, and elation or irritability. – Bipolar disorder - severe mood swings between major depressive episodes and manic episodes. Figure 14.1 The Range of Emotions Most people experience a range of emotions over the course of a day or several days, such as mild sadness, calm contentment, or mild elation and happiness. A person with a mood disorder experiences emotions that are extreme and, therefore, abnormal.  Eating Disorders LO 14.6 Types of eating disorders Anorexia nervosa (anorexia) - a condition in which a person reduces eating to the point that a weight loss of 15 percent below the ideal body weight or more occurs. Bulimia nervosa (bulimia) - a condition in which a person develops a cycle of "binging," or overeating enormous amounts of food at one sitting, and then using unhealthy methods to avoid weight gain.  Dissociative Disorders LO 14.7 Types of dissociative disorders Dissociative disorders – disorders in which there is a break in conscious awareness, memory, the sense of identity, or some combination.  Dissociative Disorders LO 14.7 Types of dissociative disorders Dissociative disorders – Dissociative amnesia – Dissociative identity disorder – Depersonalization disorder  Schizophrenia LO 14.8 Main symptoms, types and causes of schizophrenia Schizophrenia - severe disorder in which the person suffers from disordered thinking, bizarre behavior, hallucinations, and is unable to distinguish between fantasy and reality. Psychotic - the break away from an ability to perceive what is real and what is fantasy.  Schizophrenia LO 14.8 Main symptoms, types and causes of schizophrenia Positive symptoms - symptoms of schizophrenia that are excesses of behavior or occur in addition to normal behavior; hallucinations, delusions, and distorted thinking. – Delusions - false beliefs held by a person who refuses to accept evidence of their falseness.  Schizophrenia LO 14.8 Main symptoms, types and causes of schizophrenia Delusional disorder - a psychotic disorder in which the primary symptom is one or more delusions (may or may not be schizophrenia). – Hallucinations - false sensory perceptions, such as hearing voices that do not really exist.  Schizophrenia LO 14.8 Main symptoms, types and causes of schizophrenia Negative symptoms - symptoms of schizophrenia that are less than normal behavior or an absence of normal behavior; poor attention, flat affect, and poor speech production. – Flat affect - a lack of emotional responsiveness.  Types of Schizophrenia LO 14.8 Main symptoms, types and causes of schizophrenia Disorganized - type of schizophrenia in which behavior is bizarre and childish and thinking, speech, and motor actions are very disordered. Catatonic - type of schizophrenia in which the person experiences periods of statue-like immobility mixed with occasional bursts of energetic, frantic movement and talking.  Types of Schizophrenia LO 14.8 Main symptoms, types and causes of schizophrenia Paranoid - type of schizophrenia in which the person suffers from delusions of persecution, grandeur, and jealousy, together with hallucinations.  Personality Disorders LO 14.9 Types and causes of personality disorders Personality disorders - disorders in which a person adopts a persistent, rigid, and maladaptive pattern of behavior that interferes with normal social interactions. – Antisocial personality disorder - disorder in which a person has no morals or conscience and often behaves in an impulsive manner without regard for the consequences of that behavior.  Personality Disorders LO 14.9 Types and causes of personality disorders Personality disorders - disorders in which a person adopts a persistent, rigid, and maladaptive pattern of behavior that interferes with normal social interactions. – Borderline personality disorder - maladaptive personality pattern in which the person is moody, unstable, lacks a clear sense of identity, and often clings to others.  DSM-5 LO 14.10 Future directions in psychopathology The DSM-5 is currently in development and will likely include a variety of updates associated with current research and changes in perspectives over the years.