Psychology Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology

Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology

• Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior, encompassing both observable actions and internal thoughts/emotions.
• Structuralism focused on the structure of the mind, using introspection.
• Functionalism emphasized adaptation to the environment, seeing consciousness as a continuous flow.
• Psychoanalytic theory (Freud) focused on the unconscious mind, early childhood, and methods like dream analysis.
• Gestalt psychology viewed perception as a whole, not just individual parts.
• Behaviorism focused on observable behaviors, conditioning, and reinforcement (Pavlov, Watson, Skinner).
• Humanism emphasized personal growth, innate goodness (Maslow, Rogers).
• Cognitive psychology studied mental processes like memory, perception, and language.
• Feminist psychology addressed gender bias in studies.
• Multicultural/Cross-cultural psychology recognized biases toward Western populations, promoting diversity.
• Contemporary domains include biological (neuroscience, genetics), cognitive (memory, language), developmental (lifespan), social/personality (interactions, individual differences), and mental/physical health (disorders, clinical treatment, health impacts).
• Other subfields include industrial-organizational, forensic, and sport/exercise psychology.
• Psychology in Turkey includes historical milestones like the first course in 1915, and the development of departments & the Turkish Psychological Association.
• Studying psychology enhances critical thinking, understanding complex behaviors, and career opportunities.

Chapter 2: Research Methods in Psychology

• Psychology relies on scientific methods to challenge beliefs and pseudosciences (unlike phrenology).
• Critical thinking evaluates ideas based on evidence.
• Theories explain observations, while hypotheses are testable predictions about variables.
• Descriptive research observes behaviors without testing relationships (case, naturalistic, or survey studies).
• Correlational research examines relationships between variables (correlation ≠ causation).
• Experimental research tests cause-effect relationships, manipulating variables.
• Variables are factors, operational definitions specify how variables are measured, and control/experimental groups isolate variable effects.
• Double-blind studies help prevent researcher and participant bias.
• Reliable studies yield consistent results, valid studies measure what they intend to.
• Statistical significance (p-value) suggests unlikely chance results.
• Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) protect participant welfare.
• Informed consent ensures participant understanding.
• Deception and debriefing processes are crucial for ethical research.
• A research article (APA style) includes an abstract, introduction, methods, results, and discussion.

Chapter 3: Learning

• Learning involves a change in behavior or knowledge from experience.
• Instincts are complex unlearned behaviors, while reflexes are automatic responses.
• Associative learning involves forming connections between stimuli (classical and operant).
• Classical conditioning associates two stimuli (Pavlov's dogs). Processes include acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination.
• Operant conditioning links behaviors with consequences (Law of Effect). Reinforcement increases behavior (positive/negative). Punishment decreases it (positive/negative). Shaping trains behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations.
• Observational learning involves watching and imitating others; Bandura's Social Learning Theory emphasizes this process.
• Real-world applications of learning principles include medical settings, advertising, parenting, and behavior modification.
• Punishment can be problematic if not managed effectively because of fear/aggression issues, and lack of positive reinforcement; latent learning is initial unobservable learning.

Chapter 6: Thinking and Cognition

• Thinking encompasses perception, learning, problem-solving, judgment, and memory.
• Concepts are categories to organize information (prototypes, natural, or artificial).
• Schemas are mental structures organizing related concepts (role and event schemas).
• Language is a communication system shaping and reflecting culture.
• Language shapes thought (language and thought debate).
• Problem-solving strategies include trial and error, algorithms, and heuristics.
• Problem-solving pitfalls include mental sets and functional fixedness.
• Decision-making biases include anchoring, hindsight, representativeness, confirmation, and availability.
• Theories of intelligence include Triarchic (analytical, creative, and practical), Multiple Intelligences (various types), Emotional Intelligence (interpersonal), and Hierarchical CHC.
• Creativity involves generating novel ideas, through divergent (exploring) and convergent thinking (narrowing).
• Intelligence is measured by IQ scores (standardized and normed, using tests like Wechsler Scales).
• IQ scores generally follow a normal distribution (bell curve).
• Intelligence involves interplay of nature (genetics) and nurture (environment).
• Learning disabilities include dysgraphia, dyslexia.

Chapter 7: Developmental Psychology

• Developmental theories include Freud's psychosexual, Erikson's psychosocial, and Piaget's cognitive. Stages of prenatal, infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.
• Prenatal development encompasses germinal, embryonic, and fetal stages.
• Infancy includes reflexes and developing motor skills.
• Childhood involves cognitive milestones (object permanence, conservation) and psychosocial development.
• Adolescence involves puberty, abstract thinking, risk-taking, and identity formation.
• Adulthood involves physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes (young, middle, late).
• Developmental issues include nature vs. nurture, continuity vs. discontinuity, and universal vs. individual pathways.
• Successful aging involves healthful habits, mental engagement, social connection, and adaptability.