Protestant Reformation Overview

Protestant Reformation and its Impact

• Fragmentation of Western Christendom: The Protestant Reformation led to Christianity splitting into different denominations.
• Protestant Reformation: A 16th-century movement causing the creation of Protestant churches.
• Martin Luther (Lutherans): A key figure challenging Catholic teachings; his 95 Theses sparked the Reformation.
• 95 Theses: Luther's criticisms of indulgences posted in 1517 started the Reformation.
• John Calvin (Calvinists) and Predestination: Calvin emphasized God's predetermined salvation, a core Calvinist belief.
• Geneva & Strict Rules: Calvin's Geneva enforced strict moral codes prohibiting behaviors like dancing and card playing.
• English Reformation (Anglicans): Henry VIII broke with the Catholic Church, creating the Church of England.
• Catholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation): The Catholic Church responded to Protestantism with reforms.
• Council of Trent: A Catholic council clarifying doctrines and correcting abuses.
• Jesuits: A religious order focused on education, missions, and defending Catholicism.
• Religious Wars: Conflicts between Catholics and Protestants causing violence in Europe.
• Thirty Years' War & Peace of Westphalia: A devastating war ending with the Peace of Westphalia, establishing a new balance of power.

Effects of the Thirty Years' War

• Loss of Life/Economic Decline: Large-scale death and economic hardship from the war.
• Shifts in Power: The war altered the power dynamic among European nations.
• Balance of Power: A political concept to prevent any single nation from becoming too powerful.
• Military Development: Advances in military technology and strategies after the war.

Witch Hunts

• Societal and Religious Tensions: Witch hunts often stemmed from deep-seated worries within society and religious concerns.

New Monarchs & State Building

• Centralized Power: European rulers consolidating power within their states.
• Finance & State Power: Monarchs used taxes, loans, trade, and other methods to fund their rule.
• England, France, and Spain Dominated: These nations emerged as major powers.
• Spanish Inquisition: A Catholic tribunal enforcing religious orthodoxy.

Shifting Political Structures

• Constitutional States: States limiting the monarch's power through laws or a constitution.
• England & Constitutionalism: England's political development, including civil wars and the Glorious Revolution, shaped its evolution into a constitutional state.
• English Civil War, Oliver Cromwell, Glorious Revolution: Conflicts challenging the English monarchy's control and leading to parliamentary supremacy.
• William & Mary: The monarchs who came to the English throne following the Glorious Revolution, symbolizing the shift to constitutional monarchy.
• Puritan Complaints: Puritans' grievances within the Anglican Church contributed to the English Civil War.
• Dutch Republic: A Calvinist state gaining independence from Spain, becoming a major power.

Absolute Monarchs

• Divine Right: The belief that monarchs held power directly from God to justify their absolute rule.
• France - Louis XIV ("The Sun King"): A powerful absolute monarch, embodying French absolutist rule; 'I am the state.'
• Russia - Peter I & Catherine the Great: Russian rulers seeking modernization and expansion.

Changing Society & Economy

• Social Structure Shifts: Changes in social structures resulting from economic and political transformations.
• Early Capitalism: Trade, investment, and a growing merchant class marked this emerging economic system.
• Joint-Stock Companies: Businesses where investors pooled funds for exploration and colonization, crucial in early capitalism.
• Proto-Industrialization: A pre-industrial phase characterized by rural manufacturing and market-driven agriculture.
• Putting-Out System: A production method employing decentralized, home-based labor.
• Population Growth, Urbanization, Nuclear Families: Increased population led to city growth and smaller family units.

Scientific Revolution

• Geocentric vs. Heliocentric: The debate between the Earth-centered and Sun-centered models of the universe.
• Challenging Church Authority: Scientific discoveries clashed with established religious ideas, questioning Church authority.
• Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Newton: Key figures in the Scientific Revolution challenging traditional ideas.
• Scientific Method/Empiricism: A systematic observation-based approach to knowledge.
• Movement Away from Accepted Knowledge: The shift from relying on older authorities to a focus on observation and experimentation.

Women & Science

• Emilie du Châtelet: A prominent female scientist, contributing to physics and mathematics, notably translating Newton's "Principia."