Physiology Module 1: Levels of Organization
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Questions and Answers

What type of cell death is characterized by programmed, intentional cell destruction, beneficial for development and maintenance?

  • Autolysis
  • Necrosis
  • Plasmolysis
  • Apoptosis (correct)

    • Which of these is NOT a type of muscle tissue?

  • Smooth muscle
  • Cardiac muscle
  • Nervous muscle (correct)
  • Skeletal muscle

    • Which of these is NOT a characteristic of diffusion?

  • Movement down a concentration gradient
  • Applies to the movement of ions (correct)
  • Faster over short distances
  • Passive process (no energy required)

    • What type of transport uses carrier proteins but does NOT require energy (ATP)?

    <p>Facilitated diffusion (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT an example of bulk flow?

    <p>Movement of glucose from high to low concentration across a cell membrane (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of a hypertonic solution?

    <p>Water moves out of the cell, causing the cell to shrink (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these is NOT a type of gated channel?

    <p>Lipid-gated (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase pump is an example of which type of transport?

    <p>Active transport (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of endocytosis involves specific uptake via receptors?

    <p>Receptor-mediated endocytosis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of aquaporins?

    <p>Transporting water across the cell membrane (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of epithelial tissue is specifically designed for moving fluids or particles, and is commonly found in the respiratory tract?

    <p>Ciliated epithelia (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the cell membrane's glycocalyx?

    <p>Protecting the cell from damage and infection (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of the cytoskeleton is primarily responsible for cell shape and internal organization?

    <p>All of the above (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the Golgi apparatus within a cell?

    <p>Sorting, modifying, and packaging proteins into vesicles (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a negative feedback loop?

    <p>It amplifies the initial stimulus (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of cell junction is responsible for creating a selectively permeable barrier between cells, often found in the kidneys?

    <p>Tight junctions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT an example of a control system that utilizes a negative feedback loop?

    <p>Blood clotting (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between acclimation and acclimatization?

    <p>Acclimation is a natural adaptation, while acclimatization is a laboratory-controlled adaptation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the lysosomes in a cell?

    <p>Breakdown of cellular waste and pathogens (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a cell membrane?

    <p>It is impermeable to all substances. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements accurately describes the process of secretion?

    <p>Movement of substances from the extracellular fluid (ECF) into the lumen of an organ or tissue. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key difference between paracellular and transcellular transport through epithelial cells?

    <p>Paracellular transport occurs between cells, while transcellular transport moves substances through the cell by crossing the cell membrane. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of transcytosis?

    <p>To allow large molecules to cross epithelial barriers without being broken down. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a key feature of the resting membrane potential (RMP)?

    <p>The RMP is always maintained at exactly -70 mV. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Nernst Equation used for?

    <p>Predicting the direction of ion movement across a membrane. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of cell signaling, what is a ligand?

    <p>A molecule that binds to a receptor and initiates a response. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of cell communication involves direct contact between cells through specialized channels?

    <p>Gap junction signaling. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between a neurotransmitter and a neuromodulator?

    <p>Neurotransmitters are faster-acting than neuromodulators. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of cytokines?

    <p>They are produced by specific glands and transported through the bloodstream. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of signal transduction?

    <p>To convert an external signal into an internal cellular response. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following molecules, when bound to its receptor, will result in a cell response?

    <p>Agonist (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a homeostatic reflex component?

    <p>All of the above (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of nitric oxide (NO) in the body?

    <p>To regulate blood vessel diameter (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a type of eicosanoid?

    <p>Leukotriene (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of prostaglandins on the body?

    <p>They regulate sleep, pain, fever, and inflammation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) reduce pain and inflammation?

    <p>They inhibit the enzyme COX (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process in which the number of receptors on a cell decreases in response to a high concentration of ligand?

    <p>Down-regulation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of antagonistic control in a homeostatic reflex pathway?

    <p>The release of both insulin and glucagon from the pancreas (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of Canon's postulates states that the nervous system regulates the internal environment to maintain homeostasis?

    <p>Postulate 1 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Flashcards

    Levels of Organization

    The hierarchical classification of biological systems from molecules to populations.

    Life Processes

    Essential functions required for life including energy use, growth, reproduction, and homeostasis.

    Homeostasis

    The body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes.

    Negative Feedback Loop

    A control mechanism that counteracts changes to maintain homeostasis.

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    Positive Feedback Loop

    A control mechanism that enhances or increases changes from the initial stimulus.

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    Control Systems

    Regulatory networks that maintain homeostasis through input, integration, and output signals.

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    Intracellular Fluid (ICF)

    The fluid within cells, essential for cellular processes.

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    Extracellular Fluid (ECF)

    Fluid that surrounds cells and provides a buffer with the external environment.

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    Cytoskeleton Functions

    Provides cell shape, stability, organization, and facilitates intracellular transport.

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    Epithelial Tissue

    Tissue that covers internal and external surfaces, playing a role in protection and exchange.

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    Types of Muscle Tissue

    The three types are skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle.

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    Glial Cells

    Support and protect neurons, ensuring their health.

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    Apoptosis

    Programmed cell death that is beneficial for development.

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    Osmosis

    Movement of water across a membrane due to solute concentration gradient.

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    Isotonic Solution

    A solution where water movement into and out of the cell is equal.

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    Hypertonic Solution

    A solution that causes water to move out of the cell, shrinking it.

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    Facilitated Diffusion

    The process where larger molecules cross membranes via carrier proteins without energy.

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    Phagocytosis

    A method where cells engulf large particles, like bacteria.

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    Endocytosis

    The process of transporting material into the cell by engulfing it.

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    Vesicular Transport

    Transport of large molecules using vesicles to move substances in/out of the cell.

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    Secretion

    Movement of substances from the ECF to the lumen.

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    Calcium (Ca²⁺)

    An essential ion stored in the endoplasmic reticulum that alters enzyme activity by binding to calmodulin.

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    Paracellular Transport

    Transportation of substances between epithelial cells.

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    Transcellular Transport

    Transport of substances through epithelial cells, crossing two membranes.

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    Nitric Oxide (NO)

    A signaling molecule produced by endothelial cells that causes blood vessels to widen.

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    Resting Membrane Potential (RMP)

    The electrical potential difference across the cell membrane, typically -70 mV.

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    Eicosanoids

    Lipid-derived signals from arachidonic acid that act through G-protein coupled receptors and are involved in immune responses.

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    Depolarization

    Process where the membrane becomes less negative than RMP.

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    Agonists

    Molecules that bind to receptors and activate a biological response.

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    Antagonists

    Molecules that bind to receptors but block a biological response.

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    Cystic Fibrosis

    A genetic disorder caused by malfunctioning CFTR transporter affecting ion balance.

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    Gap Junctions

    Connections that create cytoplasmic bridges for direct cell communication.

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    Up-Regulation

    Increase in receptor numbers due to a scarce ligand, enhancing sensitivity.

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    Down-Regulation

    Decrease in receptor numbers when a ligand is abundant, reducing sensitivity.

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    G-Protein Coupled Receptors (GPCRs)

    A common receptor type that activates a G-protein upon ligand binding.

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    Signal Transduction

    Process of converting an external signal into an internal cellular response.

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    Tonic Control

    Signal strength can vary, providing gradual control instead of just on/off states.

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    Cytokines

    Regulatory peptides that affect a broad range of cells and are made on demand.

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    Stimulus

    An event that triggers a response detected by a sensor in the homeostatic reflex pathway.

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    Study Notes

    Module 1: Levels of Organization

    • Physiology is the study of molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and organisms within populations of the same species.
    • Life processes include requiring energy, responding to stimuli, growing, reproducing, and maintaining homeostasis.
    • Key themes include structure/function relationships, compartmentation, biological energy use, communication, and homeostasis & control systems.

    Homeostasis

    • Homeostasis is the body's ability to maintain stable internal environments by monitoring critical variables like oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), heart rate (HR), respiratory rate (RR), and blood glucose (BG) within a specific range.
    • Failure to maintain homeostasis leads to disease and pathology.
    • Plasma-dynamic steady state describes the constant exchange of materials between intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF). For example, potassium (K+) is high in ICF, and sodium (Na+) is high in ECF.

    Control Systems

    • Homeostasis is regulated through local and long-distance systems.
    • Local systems and response loops regulate homeostasis.
    • Input signals (can be localized or systemic), integrating centers, and negative feedback for homeostatic stabilization are key elements.

    Module 2: Compartmentation, Cells, and Tissues

    • Membranes separate compartments.
    • Cell membranes (plasmalemma) are phospholipid bilayers with hydrophobic tails facing inward and hydrophilic heads facing outward.
    • Cell membranes contain glycoproteins and glycolipids forming a protective glycocalyx.
    • Main functions of the cell membrane include physical isolation, regulating exchange, communication, and structural support.

    Intracellular Components

    • Cytoplasm is the space inside cells.
    • Cytosol is the fluid portion of the cytoplasm.
    • Inclusions are non-membrane-bound materials within cytoplasm, including nutrient granules and lipid droplets.
    • Protein fibers such as microfilaments (e.g., actin), intermediate filaments (e.g., keratin), and microtubules (e.g., centrioles, cilia, flagella) form components of the cytoskeleton.

    Functions of the Cytoskeleton

    • The cytoskeleton provides cell shape, internal organization, intracellular transport, and aids cells to assemble into tissues.
    • It facilitates cell movement by using motor proteins like myosin, kinesin, and dynein.

    Organelles

    • Mitochondria are the powerhouse of cells producing ATP (adenosine triphosphate, cellular energy).
    • The rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) has ribosomes involved in protein synthesis.
    • The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER) synthesizes lipids, fatty acids, and steroids.
    • Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and packages proteins into vesicles.
    • Vesicles like lysosomes (involved in breaking down materials, failure linked to some conditions) and peroxisomes have various roles, including breaking down old cell material or pathogens.
    • The nucleus contains DNA forming the control center of the cell. The nuclear envelope has pores to control communication with the cytoplasm, while the nucleolus synthesizes ribosomal RNA (rRNA) to make ribosomes.

    Types of Tissues

    • Cell junctions using cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) form tissues. Junctions include gap junctions (communication), tight junctions (controlled permeability), and anchoring junctions (strength & stability).
    • Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces and lines internal organs, involved in protection and exchange. Types include exchange, ciliated, protective, and secretory epithelia.
    • Connective tissues provide structural support. They have an extracellular matrix and include types like loose, dense, supporting (e.g. cartilage, bone), adipose, and blood tissue (a fluid connective tissue).
    • Muscle tissues facilitate movement and contract. Types include skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle tissue.
    • Neural tissues (excitable) transmit electrical signals and support the body. Neurons convey these signals and glial cells protect and support neurons.

    Module 3: Membrane Dynamics

    • Osmosis refers to water movement across membranes due to solute concentration differences.
    • Water moves from areas of low solute concentration to areas of high concentration to achieve equilibrium.
    • Osmolarity is the number of osmotically active particles per liter of solution.
    • Tonicity describes how a solution affects cell volume depending on whether the cell gains or loses water. Hypertonic solutions cause cell shrinkage, isotonic solutions have no effect, and hypotonic solutions cause cell swelling.
    • Transport processes include bulk flow (movement of gases/liquids along pressure gradients) and selective permeability of cell membranes. Passive transport (simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion) and active transport (moves substances against concentration gradients requiring energy) facilitate this process.

    Protein-Mediated Transport

    • Facilitated diffusion utilizes carrier proteins to move molecules down concentration gradients. Active transport uses carrier proteins to move molecules against concentration gradients, using energy (ATP).
    • Membrane proteins participate in various functions, including structural support, enzymatic catalysis, signal reception and transmission, transport processes (channels and carriers), and receptor specificity.
    • Channel proteins (aquaporins for water, ion channels) and carrier proteins (for larger or charged molecules) help with transport through the membrane.

    Vesicular Transport

    • Vesicular transport moves large molecules that cannot pass through the membrane.
    • Processes include phagocytosis ("cell eating"), endocytosis (cell intake), pinocytosis ("cell drinking"), and receptor-mediated endocytosis.
    • Exocytosis is involved in removing waste products and transporting substances out of cells.
    • Epithelial tissue regulates the transport of substances across cells, often using transcellular or paracellular pathways. Transcytosis is a combination of endocytosis and exocytosis.
    • Membrane potential and changes like depolarization, hyperpolarization, and repolarization influence cell behavior.

    Module 4: Communication, Integration & Homeostasis

    • Cells communicate through electrical signals (changes in membrane potential) and chemical signals (ligands interacting with receptors).
    • Four types of cell communication include gap junctions, contact-dependent signaling, local chemical signaling, and long-distance signaling. (nervous and endocrine systems).
    • Gap junctions facilitate direct exchange of molecules between adjacent cells.
    • Local signaling involve chemical messengers acting locally, and examples like paracrine (neighboring cells) and autocrine signaling (acting on the signaling cell itself) are noted.
    • Long-distance signaling involves hormones or nervous impulse to influence multiple target cells and organs in the body. Cytokines are one type of signaling molecules with a wider cell influence unlike hormones that are more specific to one or only few types of organs.

    Module 5: Signal Pathways

    • Chemical signals (ligands) bind to receptors, activating intracellular responses.
    • Signal transduction is the process of converting external signals to internal cellular responses.
    • Signal amplification involves one initial signal activating multiple second messenger systems leading to a larger downstream response.
    • Key receptors include ligand-gated ion channels and G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Receptor-enzyme and integrins also transmit signals impacting cellular systems.
    • Novel signaling molecules like calcium, nitric oxide, eicosanoids, leukotrienes, and prostanoids play roles in various physiological functions.

    Module 6: Homeostatic Reflex Pathways

    • Homeostasis is maintained by the nervous and endocrine systems through reflex pathways.
    • Reflex pathways involve stimulus detection by sensors, processing by an integration center (e.g., brain, endocrine gland), and a response to a target tissue.
    • Neural pathways involve rapid response, while endocrine pathways involve slower but longer-lasting responses.
    • Tonic control regulates the intensity of a signal, and antagonistic control involves opposing effects.

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