Questions and Answers
What is the function of the Eustachian tubes?
How many laryngeal cartilages are there?
What is the function of the trachea?
What is the name of the point where the trachea bifurcates into the right and left primary bronchi?
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How many C-rings of hyaline cartilage are embedded in the wall of the trachea?
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What is the name of the bronchi that directly conduct air to and from one of the lung's five lobes?
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What is the name of the three anatomical regions of the pharynx?
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What is the location of the trachea in relation to the esophagus?
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What is the name of the anatomical compartment that each lung lobe is divided into?
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How many bronchopulmonary segments are there in both the right and left lung?
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What is the diameter of a secondary pulmonary lobule?
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What is the smallest conducting tubule in the respiratory system?
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What is the structure that gives rise to bronchioles?
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What is the diameter of an alveolus?
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What is the functional significance of bronchopulmonary segments?
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What is the structure that protrudes from the walls of alveolar ducts and respiratory bronchioles?
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What is the primary function of Pulmonary Capillaries?
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What type of cells secrete surfactant in the alveoli?
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What is the primary function of Bronchial Arteries?
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What is the purpose of Alveolar Ducts?
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What is the function of Pulmonary Veins?
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What type of cells are found at the corners of the alveoli?
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What is the primary function of Pulmonary Arteries?
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What is the primary reason for an increase in breathing rate during exercise?
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What drives the pressure changes in the lungs during ventilation?
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What is the term for the increase in breathing rate at high altitudes?
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What is the primary function of the diaphragm in ventilation?
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What is the relationship between lung volume and intrapulmonary pressure?
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What is the term for the process of gas exchange between the air in the lungs and the blood?
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What is the driving force behind the increase in breathing rate during hypercapnic drive?
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What is the direction of O2 diffusion in the tissues?
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According to Boyle's Law, what happens to the volume of a gas when the pressure is increased?
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What is the relationship between the concentration of CO2 in blood and air?
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What happens to the intrapulmonary pressure when we inhale?
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What is the result of Boyle's Law in the lungs during inhalation?
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What is the relationship between the concentration of O2 in blood and tissues?
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What happens to the chest during exhalation?
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What is the effect of increased pressure on the volume of a gas?
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What measurement is represented by FEV1 in a spirometer test?
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Which of the following correctly defines Total Lung Capacity (TLC)?
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What is the primary purpose of measuring FEV6 in spirometry?
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What does the term Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) refer to?
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During a spirometry test, what task must patients perform?
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What does the term Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) mean?
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Which spirometric measure is considered an important indicator of airway diseases?
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What is the main difference between FEV1 and FEV6 measurements?
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Which volume represents the air remaining in the lungs after a forced exhalation?
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What is depicted as a quick method to assess lung and airway diseases during a spirometry test?
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Study Notes
Anatomy of the Pharynx
- The pharynx is divided into three anatomical regions: Nasopharynx, Oropharynx, and Laryngopharynx
- The nasopharynx has openings to the Eustachian tubes, which connect to the middle ear and help equalize pressure on both sides of the eardrum
Larynx
- The larynx has nine laryngeal cartilages (three paired and three single) that form a supportive skeletal framework for the vocal cords
Trachea
- The trachea (or windpipe) is a vertical tube that runs through the neck and chest, anterior to the esophagus
- The trachea functions to conduct air between the larynx and the mainstem (primary) bronchi
- The trachea has 16 to 20 tracheal C-rings made of hyaline cartilage embedded in its wall
Bronchi
- The trachea bifurcates into the right and left primary bronchi at the Carina
- Each primary bronchus runs freely for a few centimeters, then enters its respective lung
- The primary bronchi divide into secondary bronchi, which are also known as lobar bronchi
- The tertiary bronchi branch from the secondary bronchi and give rise to bronchioles
Lung Lobes and Bronchopulmonary Segments
- Each of the five lung lobes is divided by connective tissue walls into anatomical compartments called bronchopulmonary segments
- There are typically 10 segments in both the right and left lung
- Each segment functions independently and is supplied by its own tertiary bronchus (or segmental bronchus), artery, vein, lymph vessels, and autonomic nerves
Secondary Pulmonary Lobules
- The bronchopulmonary segments are partitioned into many polygonal-shaped secondary pulmonary lobules
- Each secondary pulmonary lobule measures approximately 1-3 centimeters in diameter and contains 3-5 terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli
Terminus of the Airway
- The respiratory bronchioles give rise to two or more alveolar ducts
- Alveoli, which measure about 0.2 – 0.5 mm in diameter, protrude from the walls of the alveolar ducts and respiratory bronchioles
Gas Exchange Tissue
- Respiratory bronchioles give off alveoli and alveolar ducts
- Alveolar ducts give off alveoli only
- Alveolar sacs are spaces surrounded by clusters of alveoli
- Type I Pneumocytes (epithelial cells), Type II Pneumocytes (surfactant cells), and macrophages are important cells of the alveoli
Blood Flow Through Lungs
- Pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs
- Pulmonary capillaries are the site for gas exchange
- Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart
- Bronchial arteries are the main blood supply to the tissues of the lung
Basic Principles of Breathing
- Ventilation is mechanical – air in/air out
- Lungs inflate/deflate due to pressure changes
- Pressure changes occur because of volume changes (Boyle's Law)
- Inspiration: air pressure > intra-pulmonary pressure
- Expiration: air pressure < intra-pulmonary pressure
How Volume Affects Pressure: Boyle’s Law
- Boyle's Law states that P1xV1 = P2xV2
- The law describes the inverse relationship between volume and pressure of a gas at constant temperature
- Boyle's Law applies to the action of the ventilatory muscles on the movement of air into and out of the lungs
Pulmonary System: Anatomy
- The nasal cavity is the first portion of the respiratory tract, serving as a vent for air exchange
- Two openings called anterior nares (or nostrils) allow air to enter the nose and pass into the nasal cavity
- Three turbinates on each side of the nasal cavity are covered by a thick layer of mucous membrane, where air is warmed, humidified, and cleaned when breathing in
- The nasal cavity contains two posterior nares (or choanae) through which air passes into the pharynx
- The sinuses include two frontal sinuses, several small ethmoid sinuses, two large maxillary sinuses, and two sphenoid sinuses
- Mucus produced in the sinuses normally drains out of small apertures and adds to the mucus in the nasal cavity
- The sinuses help lighten the skull and resonate the voice sounds
Pharynx
- The pharynx is a fibromuscular tube that conducts air from the nasal cavity to the larynx
- The pharynx plays a role in regulating breathing rate in response to changes in carbon dioxide concentration and pH levels in the blood and CSF
Respiratory Control Mechanisms
- The peripheral and central chemoreceptors are sensitive to the pH of the blood and CSF
- If the H+ concentration increases, the chemoreceptors tell the respiratory centers to speed up
- Stretch receptors in the lungs and chest wall monitor the amount of stretch in these organs and prevent damage from over-inflation
- Signals from higher brain centers, such as the hypothalamus and cortex, influence the activity of the respiratory centers
- Chemical irritants in the airways trigger sneezing or coughing to remove the offending substance
- The strongest influence on respiratory control is the carbon dioxide concentration in the blood and CSF, followed by the hydrogen ion concentration, and then the oxygen concentration
Respiratory Control: Adapting to the Environment
- The breathing control mechanisms adapt to different circumstances, such as changes in oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations in the blood and tissues
- The concentration of oxygen in the blood is higher than in the air, while the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood is higher than in the air
- Oxygen utilization in cells affects the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood and tissues
How Volume Affects Pressure: Boyle's Law
- Boyle's Law states that P1xV1 = P2xV2, where P is pressure and V is volume
- When pressure increases, volume decreases, and vice versa
- A life-dependent example of Boyle's Law is the action of the ventilatory muscles on the movement of air into and out of the lungs during inhalation and exhalation
Spirometry
- The classic spirometer volumes include:
- Normal Tidal Volume = ½ Liter
- Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
- Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)
- Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
- Residual Volume (RV)
- Forced Vital Capacity (FVC)
- Total Lung Capacity (TLC)
- Modern spirometry measures FEV1 (air flow) and FEV6 (FVC) to help diagnose lung and airway diseases and monitor their response to treatment
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Description
This quiz explores the physiological changes that occur during exercise, including the impact on breathing rate and the underlying mechanisms.