Personality Theories Overview

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Questions and Answers

What characterizes a ritualist in the context of control theories?

They accept modest positions but follow societal methods. (correct)

They strive for high societal achievements.

They seek to create new societal norms.

They reject all societal goals and means.

Which type of strain is defined by how individuals perceive specific events or scenarios?

Cumulative strains

Objective strains

Chronic strains

Subjective strains (correct)

According to social bond theory, what does the component of 'commitment' refer to?

The importance of maintaining a good reputation. (correct)

The degree of involvement in prosocial activities.

The strength of relationships with family and peers.

The individual's trust in societal laws.

What does the containment theory emphasize as factors preventing criminal behavior?

A combination of external social factors and internal qualities. Signup and view all the answers

What is a common trait of retreatists in control theories?

They reject both societal goals and means. Signup and view all the answers

What does the interactional component of Differential Reinforcement Theory refer to?

Direct and indirect associations with others Signup and view all the answers

Which type of reinforcement involves the removal of negative consequences?

Negative Reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of behavior does labeling theory primarily focus on?

Societal perceptions and labels Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of specific definitions in Differential Reinforcement Theory?

An individual’s own interpretation of behavior Signup and view all the answers

According to Differential Reinforcement Theory, which behavior is adopted through observation?

Imitation Signup and view all the answers

Which dimension of personality is characterized by individuals being sociable and risk-taking?

Introversion-Extraversion Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of neurotic individuals?

Stability Signup and view all the answers

What does the Psychodynamic Theory primarily focus on?

The interrelationship of various parts of the mind Signup and view all the answers

What prompts a change according to Cognitive Dissonance Theory?

Conflicting attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors Signup and view all the answers

Aggressive behavior, according to Behavioral Theory, is developed through which of the following?

Learning experiences Signup and view all the answers

Which personality dimension is characterized by being cruel and insensitive?

Psychoticism Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect does the Cognitive Theory emphasize in explaining criminal behavior?

Moral thinking defects Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary concern of psychotherapy within the context of Psychodynamic Theory?

Enhancing relationships and resolving problems Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary cause of delinquent behavior according to Interactional Theory?

Weakening of bonds to conventional society Signup and view all the answers

According to Situational Crime Prevention Theory, how can crime be prevented?

By altering the situation that leads to the crime Signup and view all the answers

What does Deterrence Theory emphasize as essential for preventing crime?

The certainty, severity, and swiftness of punishment Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of Differential Association in Social Learning Theory refer to?

The process of being exposed to definitions favorable or unfavorable to legal/illegal behaviors Signup and view all the answers

Who developed the Interactional Theory?

Thornberry and Krohn Signup and view all the answers

Which type of deterrence aims to discourage the general public after observing the punishment of others?

General Deterrence Signup and view all the answers

What is a major difference between Social Learning Theory and Differential Association Theory?

Social Learning Theory focuses more on community exposure to crime Signup and view all the answers

What component of Deterrence Theory refers to the promptness of legal punishment?

Swiftness (Celerity) Signup and view all the answers

What is the main concept of Differential Association Theory?

Crime is learned through interactions with others. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT part of the learning process in Differential Association Theory?

Genetic predisposition to crime Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the breakdown of social order due to the loss of societal norms?

Anomie Signup and view all the answers

Which response to strain involves using illegal means to achieve societal goals?

Innovation Signup and view all the answers

What does Strain Theory suggest is the result of unpleasant emotions like frustration and anger?

Increased criminal activity Signup and view all the answers

According to Differential Association Theory, which of the following is NOT a factor that influences the learning process?

Quality of parental guidance Signup and view all the answers

What does Anomie refer to in sociological terms?

Absence of laws and norms Signup and view all the answers

What aspect does Sutherland's Differential Association Theory emphasize in relation to delinquency?

Excess of definitions favorable to law violation Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes 'Conformity' as a response to strain?

Pursuing societal goals through legal means. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of Differential Association Theory, which of the following represents the 'intensity' of associations?

The closeness of relationships with peers Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Three Dimensions of Personality

Hans Eysenck (1964) proposed three dimensions of personality: Introversion-Extraversion, Neuroticism-Stability, and Psychoticism.
Introverts are thoughtful, quiet, reserved, and avoid social interaction, while extroverts are sociable, lively, and enjoy social interaction.
Neurotics are unstable, anxious, and moody, while emotionally stable individuals are relaxed and calm.
Psychoticism is characterized by cruelty, non-conformity, and insensitivity.

Psychodynamic Theory

Focuses on the interrelationship of various parts of the mind, particularly the unconscious.
Explores mental, emotional, and motivational forces, especially those developing during early childhood.
Important terms include "jointness" - a dynamic process for attachment and communication, and "psychotherapy" - using psychological methods to improve well-being.

Behavioral Theory

Argues that human behavior develops through learning experiences.
Environmental influences shape behavior changes.
Aggressive behavior can be learned through observation of family, environment, and media.

Cognitive Theory

Explains criminal behavior as a defect in moral thinking, thought processes, or mental development.
Emphasizes the role of information processing and interpretation.
The theory suggests that criminal behavior is a result of faulty thinking rather than underlying psychological issues.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Individuals experience discomfort when their attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors contradict each other creating internal conflict.
This discomfort motivates individuals to make changes to restore balance and reduce conflict.
The underlying psychological tension arises from inconsistency between thoughts and actions.

Differential Association Theory

Proposed by Edwin Sutherland.
Crime is learned through interactions in intimate personal groups, sharing techniques, motives, rationalizations, and attitudes related to crime.
Delinquency arises when definitions favorable to law violations outweigh unfavorable definitions.

Sutherland's Nine Points on Differential Association Theory

Criminal behavior is learned.
Learning occurs through interaction and communication.
Learning primarily happens in intimate personal groups.
Learning includes techniques of committing crimes and related rationalizations and justifications.
Definitions of legal codes can be favorable or unfavorable, influencing criminal behavior.
Excess definitions favorable to law violations lead to delinquency.
The frequency, duration, priority, and intensity of associations affect the learning process.
Learning criminal behavior involves the same mechanisms as any other learning.
While criminal behavior arises from needs and values, it's not explained solely by them, as noncriminal behavior shares similar needs and values.

Factors Influencing the Learning Process

Priority: Early associations have a stronger influence.
Duration: Longer associations have a greater impact.
Frequency: More frequent associations increase influence.
Intensity: Close and important partners/peer groups have a stronger influence.

Anomie Theory

Introduced by Emile Durkheim.
Describes the breakdown of social order due to the loss of values and standards necessary for social cohesion.
This results in an absence of societal norms, a state of anomie.

Strain Theory

Focuses on the tension between societal expectations and aspirations and the acceptable methods of achieving those goals.
Robert Merton stressed that various strains or pressures increase criminal activity, often stemming from frustration and anger.

Responses to Strain

Conformity: Accepting societal goals and pursuing them through legal means.
Innovation: Accepting societal goals, but resorting to illegal methods to achieve them.
Ritualism: Rejecting societal goals, but accepting and continuing within the societal methods.
Retreatism: Rejecting both societal goals and means, opting for a lifestyle outside of conventional norms.
Rebellion: Replacing societal goals and means with new ones, often using violence to push political agendas.

General Strain Theory (GST)

Developed by Robert Agnew (1992).
Expands on Strain Theory, incorporating objective strains (events disliked by most) and subjective strains (individual perceptions).
Criminality is more likely when strains are perceived as unjust, have high magnitude, low social control, and create pressure for criminal coping.

Suggests that weak or broken bonds with society contribute to deviant behavior.
Strong bonds with prosocial people and institutions discourage crime.
Components of social bonds include attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief.

Attachment: Strong relationships with family, peers, schools, etc., discourage crime.
Commitment: Individuals with a positive reputation are less likely to engage in crime.
Involvement: Engaging in prosocial activities reduces opportunities for criminal behavior.
Belief: Strong faith in the law and acceptance of its authority discourage crime.

Containment Theory

Proposed by Walter Reckless (1960).
External social factors and internal qualities prevent involvement in criminal behavior.
This theory explains how some individuals are unaffected by ecological variables that increase the likelihood of involvement in criminal behavior.

Interactional Theory

Developed by Thornberry and Krohn.
Argues that a weakening of bonds to conventional society is a primary cause of delinquent behavior.
Societal, learning, and delinquency factors contribute to involvement in organized crime.
Individuals with weak social bonds are more likely to form bonds with delinquents, leading to further deviant behavior and delinquency.

Situational Crime Prevention Theory

Described by Ron Clarke.
Crime can be prevented by modifying the situation leading to the criminal act rather than changing the criminal's disposition.
This approach focuses on removing opportunities for crime by altering the environment.

Deterrence Theory

Suggests that the severity, certainty, and swiftness of legal punishment deter crime.
It emphasizes the pain of punishment to discourage criminal behavior.
There are two types:
- General Deterrence: Discouraging the general public from committing crime by observing the punishment of others.
- Specific Deterrence: Discouraging individuals from committing further crimes after receiving punishment.

Developed by Sutherland.
Proposed that criminal behavior is learned through exposure and socialization within the community.
Shares similarities with Differential Association Theory, but emphasizes the role of association with individuals who engage in criminal acts.
Differential Association is a key concept, referring to the process of exposure to definitions favorable or unfavorable towards legal/illegal behaviors.

Components of Deterrence Theory

Severity: The intensity of legal punishment.
Certainty: The assurance that punishment will be imposed.
Swiftness (Celerity): The promptness of legal punishment.

Differential Association: The process through which a person is exposed to definitions favorable or unfavorable to legal/illegal behaviors.

Components of Differential Reinforcement

Definitions: Involve interactional, normative, general, and specific definitions.
- Interactional: Direct and indirect associations with others who engage in certain behaviors.
- Normative: Norms and values encountered through social groups.
- General: Broad beliefs, such as religious or moral values.
- Specific: Individuals' interpretations of behavior in specific circumstances.
Differential Reinforcement: The process of weighing expected outcomes, including rewards and punishments, influencing behavior.
- Positive Reinforcement: Positive outcomes or pleasurable reactions.
- Negative Reinforcement: Removal of negative consequences.
Imitation: Observing and mirroring the behavior of others.
Labeling Theory: Societal labeling of individuals as deviant or not influences their behavior.

Routine Activity Theory

Proposed by Cohen and Felson (1979).
Crime is a product of situational responses to everyday activities.
Changes in routine activities, such as work, food, shelter, and recreation, can influence crime rates.

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Description

Explore the three key dimensions of personality proposed by Hans Eysenck, covering Introversion-Extraversion, Neuroticism-Stability, and Psychoticism. Additionally, delve into Psychodynamic and Behavioral theories, examining their principles and implications on human behavior. This quiz will test your understanding of these critical psychological concepts.