Pathophysiology Exam 2

Cognitive Functions

• Perception: Sensory input and interpretation of the environment.
• Memory: Retention and recall of past experiences and learning.
• Executive Function: Higher thinking processes that enable flexibility, adaptability, and goal-directed behavior.

Down Syndrome

• Associated with impairments in language, cognition, learning, and memory.
• MRI reveals smaller total intracranial volume and differences in the cerebellum, brainstem, and frontal lobes.
• Treatment includes speech therapy, physical therapy, and communication techniques.

Attention Deficit Disorders (ADD/ADHD)

• Pathogenesis linked to maternal genetics, alcohol, tobacco use, and premature delivery.
• Clinical manifestations:
  • Predominantly Inattentive: Difficulty completing tasks, easily distracted.
  • Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive: Fidgets, talks a lot, engages in risk-taking.
  • Combined: Presence of both inattentive and hyperactive-impulsive symptoms.

Cerebral Palsy

• Disorder of movement, muscle tone, or posture due to brain injury or abnormal development before age 1.
• Risk factors include cerebral hypoxia, hemorrhage, infections, genetic abnormalities, and low birth weight.
• Clinical manifestations involve issues with muscle movement, gait, and balance.
• Pyramidal/Spastic CP: Increased muscle tone and rigidity.
• Extrapyramidal/Nonspastic CP: Dystonic (fine motor coordination issues) and Ataxic (coordination alterations).

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

• Etiology risk factors include paternal age, maternal health, and genetic components.

Dementia and Delirium

• Dementia: Chronic disorder marked by memory impairment, personality changes, and impaired reasoning.
• Delirium: Most common hospitalization complication in the elderly, arising from dehydration, electrolyte imbalances, fever, and infections. Clinical manifestations include disorientation, rapid speech, and emotional swings.

Anxiety Disorders

• Neurotransmitters involved include decreased GABA, imbalanced norepinephrine (NE), and other neurotransmitter systems.
• Clinical manifestations include a sense of dread, avoidance of social interactions, somatic symptoms (e.g., palpitations and sweating).
• Amygdala: Part of the brain associated with hyperactive responses in anxiety.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

• Characterized by recurring unwanted thoughts and compulsive behaviors.
• Neurotransmitters involved show a decrease in serotonin and an increase in cortisol.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

• Excessive worry impacting daily function; cognitive symptoms include restlessness, fatigue, and irritability.
• Neurotransmitter changes: increased norepinephrine and decreased GABA.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

• Clinical manifestations: memory disorders, cognitive symptoms (e.g., hypervigilance), and physical symptoms like sleep disturbances.
• Involves decreased GABA neurotransmitter levels.

Panic Disorder

• Sudden intense fear episodes with increased sympathetic function. Symptoms include palpitations, sweating, feelings of unreality, and impending doom.
• Neurotransmitter changes: increased norepinephrine, decreased GABA, and increased glutamate.

Depression

• Pathogenesis linked to genetic components and chronic stress or illness.
• Neurotransmitter deficiencies include decreased norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine.

Bipolar Disorder

• Characterized by a smaller prefrontal cortex and family history of mood disorders.
• Neurotransmitter dysregulation leads to excessive norepinephrine during mania and depletion during depressive episodes.

Schizophrenia

• Clinical manifestations: faulty perceptions, inappropriate actions, disconnection from reality, delusions, and hallucinations.
• Neurotransmitters involved include norepinephrine, serotonin, GABA, and dopamine imbalances.

Addiction

• Defined as compulsive drug use despite a desire to quit.
• Neurotransmitter involvement: enhances GABA, decreases glutamate, and increases dopamine in reward centers.
• Treatment options include cognitive behavioral therapy, medications, and support groups.

Eye Disorders

• Cataracts: Cloudy discoloration of the lens, gradual onset, and risk factors include age, UV light exposure, and certain medications.
• Glaucoma: Characterized by high intraocular pressure leading to vision loss; can be open-angle (asymptomatic) or closed-angle (emergency with clear symptoms).

Stress Response

• General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): Three stages - alarm (activation of stress response), resistance (adaptation), and exhaustion (chronic stress effects).
• HPA Axis: Regulates stress response through hormonal release from the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal glands.

Hydrocephalus and Meningitis

• Hydrocephalus: Excessive cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leading to mental impairment and unstable gait.
• Meningitis: Inflammation of the meninges covering the brain and spinal cord.

Hemorrhage Types

• Subdural Hemorrhage: Bleeding between the dura and arachnoid mater due to vein tearing.

Prepare for Exam 2 in Pathophysiology with this quiz. It covers crucial concepts such as perception, memory, and executive functions, as well as specific disorders like Down syndrome. Test your understanding of pathogenesis and the implications seen through MRI imaging.