Pathology of Reproductive System
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary influence on the growth and survival of prostate cancer cells?

  • Hormonal imbalance
  • Chronic inflammation
  • Epigenetic changes
  • Androgens, particularly testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) (correct)

    • At what age does the risk of developing prostate cancer increase significantly?

  • 45 years old
  • 75 years old
  • 65 years old (correct)
  • 55 years old

    • Which of the following environmental factors has been linked to an increased risk of prostate cancer?

  • Regular exercise
  • High-occupation hazards
  • Exposure to carcinogens (correct)
  • Low-fat diet

    • What is a common result of chronic inflammation of the prostate gland?

    <p>DNA damage and cell proliferation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What plays a critical role in prostate cancer progression?

    <p>Tumor microenvironment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of alterations can affect gene expression and contribute to prostate cancer development?

    <p>Epigenetic changes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary result of hormonal imbalances or excessive androgen exposure?

    <p>Increased risk of prostate cancer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common characteristic of prostate cancer?

    <p>It is predominantly a disease of aging</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a result of interactions between cancer cells and surrounding cells in the tumor microenvironment?

    <p>Increased tumor growth, invasion, and metastasis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a contributing factor to the development of prostate cancer?

    <p>Regular exercise</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary etiology of carcinoma of the prostate?

    <p>Unknown</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the diagnostic imaging modality used to diagnose carcinoma of the prostate?

    <p>Ultrasound</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the common site of metastasis in carcinoma of the prostate?

    <p>Bones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the laboratory test used to diagnose carcinoma of the prostate?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the treatment of carcinoma of the prostate?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the common presentation of hydrocele?

    <p>Accumulation of fluid around the testis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the definition of epididymo-orchitis?

    <p>Inflammatory condition of both the testis and epididymis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the incidence of hydrocele?

    <p>Increasing worldwide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the age group commonly affected by orchitis?

    <p>Children</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the common symptom of orchitis?

    <p>Rapid onset of pain and swelling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common cause of urinary problems in men over 60 years old?

    <p>Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of granulomatous prostatitis?

    <p>It is an idiopathic condition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of men over 70 years old who have Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)?

    <p>95%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary symptom of Chronic Prostatitis?

    <p>Pain during urination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the histological feature of BPH?

    <p>Larger glands with tall epithelium lining</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary diagnostic tool used to diagnose BPH?

    <p>Digital rectal examination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the treatment of choice for BPH?

    <p>Transurethral Resection of the Prostate (TURP)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the second leading cause of male deaths?

    <p>Prostatic carcinoma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the age range at which prostate cancer is most commonly diagnosed?

    <p>60-85 years old</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What genetic mutation is associated with an increased risk of developing prostate cancer?

    <p>Both A and B</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common symptom of epididymo-orchitis?

    <p>Localized area of pain and swelling on the back of the testicle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a diagnostic method for orchitis?

    <p>Biopsy of the testicle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common age range for seminoma tumors?

    <p>20-30 years old</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a possible complication of undescended testis?

    <p>Testicular tumor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of pain or burning during urination in epididymo-orchitis?

    <p>Infection of the epididymis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of a rectal examination in the diagnosis of orchitis?

    <p>To check for prostate gland infection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the condition where the foreskin of the penis becomes inflamed?

    <p>Balanophosthitis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary risk factor for testicular tumor development?

    <p>Undescended testis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the swelling of the scrotum due to fluid accumulation?

    <p>Hydrocele</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the age range for the most common type of testicular tumor?

    <p>30-50 years old</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common symptom of endometriosis?

    <p>Pelvic pain, cramping, or heavy bleeding during menstruation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a possible cause of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)?

    <p>Hormonal imbalance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of cervical cancer?

    <p>Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is endometriosis typically diagnosed?

    <p>Laparoscopy, ultrasound, or MRI</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a treatment option for PCOS?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common symptom of ovarian tumors?

    <p>Abdominal bloating</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a treatment option for cervical cancer?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common symptom of endometriosis?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a diagnostic test for PCOS?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a possible complication of ovarian tumors?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following symptoms is NOT commonly associated with Endometriosis?

    <p>Headaches or joint pain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary diagnostic tool used to diagnose Uterine Fibroids?

    <p>Hysteroscopy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following treatments is NOT commonly used to manage Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)?

    <p>Surgery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of Ovarian Tumors?

    <p>Unknown causes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following symptoms is commonly associated with Uterine Fibroids?

    <p>Pelvic pain or pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary diagnostic tool used to diagnose Endometriosis?

    <p>Laparoscopy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following treatments is commonly used to manage Ovarian Tumors?

    <p>Surgery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary symptom of Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a risk factor for Uterine Fibroids?

    <p>Age over 70</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of abnormal vaginal bleeding in Endometriosis?

    <p>Endometrial tissue growth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of women of reproductive age are affected by Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)?

    <p>3-8%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormonal fluctuations contribute to the development of Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)?

    <p>Estrogen and progesterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common emotional and behavioral symptom of Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)?

    <p>Mood swings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of the Premenstrual Syndrome Diary?

    <p>To track symptoms and aid in diagnosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a pharmacological intervention for Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an alternative therapy for Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)?

    <p>Acupuncture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common physical symptom of Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)?

    <p>Bloating and weight gain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When do symptoms of Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS) typically occur?

    <p>1-2 weeks before menstruation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is PMS known as a syndrome and not a disease?

    <p>As it is a group of physiological and psychological symptoms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the cause of dysmenorrhea?

    <p>Excessive prostaglandins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a symptom of dysmenorrhea?

    <p>Abdominal pain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the action of prostaglandins on smooth muscles?

    <p>Contraction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a treatment option for PMS?

    <p>Stress reduction techniques</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a type of dysmenorrhea?

    <p>Primary</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a symptom of PMS?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a treatment for dysmenorrhea?

    <p>Prostaglandin inhibitors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary symptom of menopause?

    <p>Absence of menstrual periods for 12 months</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of endometriosis?

    <p>Retrograde menstruation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a risk factor for reproductive system cancer?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary diagnostic method for pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)?

    <p>Physical examination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an alternative to hormone replacement therapy for menopausal symptoms?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a complication of vaginal bleeding?

    <p>Both A and B</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary treatment for endometrial ablation?

    <p>Resectoscope</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the ovary in menopause?

    <p>Cessation of function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of menopause?

    <p>Natural decline of reproductive hormones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common symptom of endometriosis?

    <p>Abdominal pain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a risk associated with Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a complication of Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a treatment option for menopause symptoms?

    <p>Antidepressants</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of endometriosis?

    <p>Presence of normal endometrial tissue outside the uterus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a diagnostic method for Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)?

    <p>Vaginal culture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a non-hormonal therapy for menopause symptoms?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary clinical manifestation of endometriosis?

    <p>Dysmenorrhea and pelvic pain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the treatment of choice for a 26-year-old woman with uterine fibroids who wishes to have children?

    <p>Myomectomy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the diagnostic method used to diagnose leiomyomas?

    <p>Hysteroscopy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of chocolate cysts in ovaries?

    <p>Endometriosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the treatment option for endometriosis in women who no longer desire children?

    <p>Hysterectomy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary symptom of leiomyomas?

    <p>Most women do not have symptoms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the diagnosis method used to diagnose endometriosis?

    <p>Laparoscopy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the treatment option for pelvic pain and dysmenorrhea in endometriosis?

    <p>Ibuprofen (Advil)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key factor in the development of hyperandrogenism in PCOS?

    <p>Increased insulin resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common symptom of PCOS?

    <p>Hirsutism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a risk factor for cervical cancer?

    <p>Multiple sexual partners</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a treatment option for PCOS?

    <p>Metformin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary etiology of cervical cancer?

    <p>HPV infection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of PCOS?

    <p>Anovulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a complication of cervical cancer?

    <p>Pelvic inflammatory disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a diagnostic test for PCOS?

    <p>Hormone level tests</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Pathology of Male Reproductive System

    • The male reproductive system consists of prostate, testis, and other accessory organs.

    Prostate Gland Disease

    • Common causes of urinary problems in men over 60 years old: prostatitis, BPH, and prostatic carcinoma.
    • a) Prostatitis:
      • Associated with specific infective cause (e.g., coli, Staphylococcus, Neisseria gonorrhoea).
      • Types: acute suppurative, chronic non-specific, and granulomatous prostatitis.
      • Symptoms: enlarged prostate, pain during urination.

    Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)

    • Non-neoplastic enlargement of the prostate.
    • Characteristics:
      • ↑ prostate weight/enlarged prostate.
      • 50% in 40-60 years old, 95% in > 70 years old.
      • Severe cases require surgery.
    • Clinical Features:
      • Early stage: few symptoms, bladder muscles strong enough to push urine through a narrowing urethra.
      • Later stage: symptoms include weak urine flow, intermittent urination, leakage after urination, unable to empty the bladder, and nocturia.
    • Gross:
      • Solid nodules and cysts with yellowish necrotic areas and haemorrhagic margin.
      • Nodules: solid, composed of stroma and hyperplastic acini.
    • Histology:
      • Larger glands with tall epithelium lining and papillary projections.
    • Diagnosis:
      • Digital rectal examination: size and firmness of the prostate.
      • Urinalysis and urine culture.
      • Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test.
    • Treatments:
      • Transurethral Resection of the Prostate (TURP).

    Carcinoma of Prostate

    • Etiology:
      • Genetic factors: genetic mutations (BRCA1, BRCA2, DNA repair genes).
      • Hormonal factors: androgens (testosterone, dihydrotestosterone) stimulate the growth of prostate cells.
      • Age: increases with age, majority of cases in men over 65 years old.
      • Inflammation: chronic inflammation of the prostate gland.
      • Environmental factors: diet, lifestyle, exposure to carcinogens, and occupational hazards.
      • Epigenetic changes: affect gene expression.
      • Tumor microenvironment: interactions between cancer cells and surrounding cells.
    • Pathology:
      • Hard, irregular, and ill-defined gray area.
      • Histology: adenocarcinomas in the glandular epithelium.
    • Clinical Features:
      • Urinary symptoms > BPH.
      • Hard craggy prostate on rectal examination.
      • Bone metastases: pain, pathological fracture, anemia.
      • Lymph node metastasis.
    • Diagnosis:
      • Diagnostic imaging: ultrasound, skeletal X-rays, isotope bone scan.
      • Cytoscopy: transurethral resection.
      • Chemical pathology: serum acid and alkaline phosphatase and PSA.
      • Haematology: leucoerythroblastic anemia.
      • Biopsy: transurethral resection, needle biopsy, fine-needle aspiration cytology.
    • Clinical Management:
      • Gonadorelin (GnRH).
      • Orchidectomy.
      • Cyproterone (anti-androgenic effects).
      • Radiotherapy.

    Testicular Lesions

    • Non-neoplastic Disorder:
      • Present with hydrocele (accumulation of fluid around the testis).
      • Incidence increasing worldwide.

    a) Developmental and Cystic Lesions

    • Undescended Testis (Cryptorchidism):
      • High risk of developing testicular cancer.
    • Hydrocele:
      • Accumulation of serous fluid within the tunica vaginalis of the testis.
    • Haematocele:
      • Accumulation of blood within the tunica vaginalis of the testis.
    • Testicular Tortion:
      • Twisting of the spermatic cord, leading to testicular ischemia.

    b) Orchitis

    • Inflammatory Condition:
      • Viral or bacterial infection.
      • Children and 50-year-old men with BPH.
    • Symptoms:
      • Rapid onset of pain and swelling, including testicular swelling, redness, pain, and tenderness, fever, and chills.
      • Epididymo-orchitis: localized area of pain and swelling on the back of the testicle.
    • Diagnosis:
      • Established after a history and physical exam.
      • Ultrasound: exclude other conditions (e.g., testicular torsion, abscess, or epididymitis).
      • Rectal examination: check for prostate gland infection.
      • Sample of discharge: identify the infectious agent.
      • FBC and urinalysis: evaluate patient's condition.

    c) Testicular Tumor

    • Uncommon:
      • Occur in young men.
    • Aetiology:
      • Undescended testis.
      • In-situ neoplastic changes within seminiferous tubules.
    • Clinical Features:
      • Swelling of the testis.
      • Secondary hydrocele.
      • Gynaecomastia.
      • Retroperitoneal mass.
      • Metastasis.
    • Classification:
      • Seminoma: most common type, age 30-50 years old.
      • Teratoma: germ cell origin, age 20-30 years old.
    • Diagnosis:
      • Ultrasound.
      • CT scan.
      • Serum tumor markers (e.g., AFP, β-hCG).
      • Biopsy: orchiectomy.

    Other Male Reproductive Organs

    • Penis and Scrotum:
      • Congenital disorders (e.g., hypospadias, epispadias).
      • Inflammation and infections (e.g., balanophosthitis, phimosis, paramiphosis, syphilis).
      • Tumor and carcinoma of the scrotum.

    Endometriosis

    • Tissue similar to the lining of the uterus grows outside the uterus, leading to pain, inflammation, and adhesions.
    • Causes are unknown, but may be related to retrograde menstruation, hormonal imbalance, or genetic factors.
    • Symptoms include pelvic pain, cramping, or heavy bleeding during menstruation, pain during intercourse, infertility, and bowel or urinary symptoms.
    • Diagnosis involves laparoscopy, ultrasound, or MRI.
    • Treatment options include hormonal medications, surgical removal of endometrial tissue, and assisted reproductive technologies.

    Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)

    • A hormonal disorder characterized by irregular menstrual cycles, cysts on the ovaries, and insulin resistance.
    • Causes are unknown, but may be related to genetic, environmental, or hormonal factors.
    • Symptoms include irregular or absent periods, weight gain, acne, or excess hair growth, infertility, and insulin resistance or type 2 diabetes.
    • Diagnosis involves clinical evaluation, ultrasound, and laboratory tests.
    • Treatment options include hormonal medications, fertility medications, and lifestyle modifications.

    Cervical Cancer

    • A type of cancer that occurs in the cervix, the lower part of the uterus that opens into the vagina.
    • Causes include human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, smoking, and weakened immune system.
    • Symptoms include abnormal vaginal bleeding, pain during intercourse, pelvic pain, and unusual vaginal discharge.
    • Diagnosis involves Pap smear, HPV testing, colposcopy, and biopsy.
    • Treatment options include surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy.

    Ovarian Tumors

    • Abnormal growths on the ovaries, which can be benign or malignant.
    • Causes are unknown, but may be related to genetic, hormonal, or environmental factors.
    • Symptoms include pelvic pain or discomfort, abdominal swelling or bloating, abnormal vaginal bleeding, and fatigue or weight loss.
    • Diagnosis involves ultrasound, CT or MRI, and tumor marker tests.
    • Treatment options include surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy.

    Uterine Fibroids

    • Noncancerous growths that develop in the uterus, often leading to heavy bleeding, pain, and infertility.
    • Causes are unknown, but may be related to hormonal, genetic, or environmental factors.
    • Symptoms include heavy or prolonged menstrual bleeding, pelvic pain or pressure, infertility or recurrent miscarriage, and frequent urination.
    • Diagnosis involves ultrasound, MRI, or hysteroscopy.
    • Treatment options include hormonal medications, surgical removal of fibroids, and uterine artery embolization.

    Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)

    • A set of physical, emotional, and behavioral symptoms that occur before menstruation.
    • Causes include hormonal fluctuations, neurotransmitter imbalance, and genetic factors.
    • Symptoms include breast tenderness, bloating or water retention, mood swings or irritability, fatigue or insomnia, and headaches or joint pain.
    • Diagnosis involves clinical evaluation and symptom tracking.
    • Treatment options include lifestyle modifications, hormonal medications, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) for mood symptoms.

    Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)

    Definition

    • A set of physical, emotional, and behavioral symptoms occurring in the premenstrual phase of the menstrual cycle
    • Affects 3-8% of women of reproductive age

    Causes

    • Hormonal fluctuations (estrogen and progesterone) contribute to PMS
    • Serotonin levels play a role in PMS
    • Genetic predisposition is a contributing factor
    • Lifestyle factors such as stress, diet, and sleep affect PMS

    Symptoms

    Physical Symptoms

    • Breast tenderness
    • Bloating and weight gain
    • Fatigue
    • Headaches
    • Joint or muscle pain

    Emotional and Behavioral Symptoms

    • Mood swings
    • Irritability
    • Anxiety
    • Depression
    • Emotional reactivity
    • Symptoms occur 1-2 weeks before menstruation and resolve with onset of menses

    Diagnosis

    • Based on clinical evaluation and symptom severity
    • No single diagnostic test, but tools like the Premenstrual Syndrome Diary aid in tracking symptoms
    • Must rule out other underlying conditions (e.g., thyroid disorders, depression)

    Treatment and Management

    Lifestyle Modifications

    • Regular exercise
    • Balanced diet
    • Stress management techniques

    Pharmacological Interventions

    • Hormonal therapies (e.g., birth control pills)
    • Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
    • Pain relievers (e.g., ibuprofen)

    Alternative Therapies

    • Acupuncture
    • Herbal supplements (e.g., omega-3 fatty acids)

    Menstrual Disorders

    • Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)
      • Defined as a syndrome, not a disease, due to varying symptoms
      • Symptoms: physiological and psychological, varying from month to month
      • Treatment: stress reduction techniques, exercise programs, diet therapy, and drug therapy
    • Dysmenorrhea
      • Defined as painful cramps before or during menstruation
      • Causes: excessive prostaglandins leading to smooth muscle contraction
      • Types: primary (common) and secondary (disorder of female reproductive organs)
      • Signs and symptoms: abdominal pain, pressure, vomiting, diarrhea, and pain in hips, lower back, and thighs
      • Treatment: drug therapy, relaxation techniques, heat therapy, exercise, and acupuncture
    • Abnormal Vaginal Bleeding
      • Types: oligomenorrhea (light or infrequent periods), amenorrhea (absence of periods), menorrhagia (prolonged bleeding), and metrorrhagia (bleeding between periods)
      • Complications: anemia, toxic shock syndrome
      • Treatment: drug therapy, balloon thermotherapy, myomectomy, and endometrial ablation

    Menopause

    • Defined as cessation of menses, function of ovary ceases
    • Stages: premenopause, perimenopause, menopause, and postmenopause
    • Causes: natural decline of reproductive hormones, hysterectomy, bilateral oophorectomy, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy
    • Treatment: hormone replacement therapy, antidepressants, selective estrogen receptor modulators, bisphosphonates, and non-hormonal therapy

    Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)

    • Defined as infection of uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries, and peritoneal cavity
    • Causes: gonorrhea and chlamydial infections spreading up the reproductive system
    • Manifestations: abdominal pain, fever, vaginal discharge
    • Diagnosis: vaginal culture
    • Complications: septic shock, infertility, ectopic pregnancy
    • Treatment: drug therapy, forced fluids, heat therapy, and patient teaching for prevention of re-infection

    Endometriosis

    • Defined as presence of normal endometrial tissue outside the uterus
    • Clinical manifestations: dysmenorrhea, pelvic pain, dyspareunia, and infertility
    • Diagnosis: pelvic exam, ultrasound, laparoscopy
    • Treatment: ibuprofen, oral contraceptives, medroxyprogesterone, danazol, and gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists

    Benign Reproductive Tumors

    • Leiomyomas (uterine fibroids)
      • Defined as benign smooth muscle tumors in uterus
      • Diagnosis: hysteroscopy
      • Signs and symptoms: abnormal uterine bleeding, pain, pelvic pressure
      • Treatment: myomectomy, hysterectomy, cryosurgery
    • Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS)
      • Defined as bilateral enlarged ovaries with multiple outer follicular cysts and hyperplastic ovarian stroma
      • Causes: insulin resistance, hyperinsulinemia, and androgen excess
      • Signs and symptoms: irregular menstrual periods, hirsutism, obesity, acne, and infertility
      • Diagnosis: ultrasound and laparoscopy
      • Treatment: medication, surgery, and additional treatment (weight management, exercise, monitoring lipid profile and glucose levels)

    Cancers of Female Reproductive System

    • Cervical Cancer
      • Defined as early changes in cervical epithelial tissue
      • Etiology: strongly linked to STDs (HSV-2, HPV)
      • High-risk factors: multiple sex partners, early sexual intercourse, and history of STDs
      • Staging: cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) graded from I to III

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    Description

    This quiz covers the pathology of the male and female reproductive systems, including common disorders and infertility. It is designed for students of biomedical science.

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