Overview of Memory Concepts

Recall of details or words not present in the original experience or list.

Memories are actively built, not passively reproduced; retrieval alters them based on current context.

The initial stage of memory, where information is entered into the memory system.

Preservation of encoded information in memory, enabling later retrieval.

Accessing and bringing stored memories into consciousness.

Focusing on specific inputs, filtering out others; crucial to encoding.

Focus is needed to effectively encode information into memory; without attention most information is not processed.

Mental shortcuts our brains use to fill in missing information; leads to errors and distortions.

Learning through association. A neutral stimulus (NS) becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits a learned response (CR) when paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that naturally triggers an unconditioned response (UCR).

The weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Responding to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus (CS) with a similar conditioned response (CR).

Learning to differentiate between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and similar, but distinct stimuli, leading to different responses for each.

Learning where behavior is influenced by its consequences (rewards or punishments).

Behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by unpleasant outcomes are less likely.

Strong dislike or aversion to a specific food or drink that develops after a single negative experience, an unusual learning reaction in which a strong association is learned quickly.

A classical conditioning experiment demonstrating conditioned fear in a child, who learned through association to fear a previously neutral stimulus.

A theory suggesting that the deeper you process information, the better you'll remember it. Shallow processing focuses on surface features, while deep processing involves meaning and connections.

Connecting new information to existing knowledge enhances memory by creating a web of associations.

Creating mental pictures associated with information improves recall by engaging multiple senses.

Making information personally relevant leads to better retention by connecting it to your experiences.

The initial stage of memory, capturing sensory information for a brief period (e.g., visual or auditory). It's like a quick snapshot of the world.

Holds information briefly, like a mental notepad, with a limited capacity (around 7 items). It's essential for tasks like remembering a phone number.

The vast storage system of the brain, capable of holding vast amounts of information for long durations.

An active system that manipulates and integrates information from both sensory input and long-term memory.

The visual component of sensory memory, lasting only about half a second.

The auditory component of sensory memory, lasting for 2-3 seconds.

The memory system that holds a limited amount of information for a short time (about 20 seconds).

The average capacity of STM, which can hold approximately 7 ± 2 pieces of information at a time.

A strategy to increase STM capacity by grouping information into meaningful units.

The process of repeating information to keep it in STM and potentially transfer it to LTM.

A deeper level of processing that involves connecting new information with prior knowledge, helping to transfer it to LTM.

Inability to form new memories after an event, making it difficult to learn and retain new information.

Memory is shaped by prior knowledge and beliefs (schemas), which can influence how we store and recall information, leading to biases in our perceptions and recall accuracy.

The way information is presented (wording and context) can influence memory, leading to distortions and inaccuracies in recollections.

Her research demonstrated how the wording and presentation of questions can alter eyewitness recollections, highlighting the malleability and potential for errors in memory.

Mental images are representations of objects or events in our minds, while concepts categorize similar objects, events, or people, allowing us to simplify complex phenomena.

Algorithms are step-by-step instructions that guarantee a solution, while heuristics are mental shortcuts that may lead to a solution but can also result in errors.

Describes a person who has expertise in many different fields. Galton was a polymath, but his broad work led to harmful misapplications of science.

Galton misunderstood Darwin's theory of evolution, leading to distorted applications and unethical practices like eugenics.

Galton's statistical methods, though important, were used to measure human traits and led to discrimination.

Galton's work sparked important discussions about genetics and environment, but his misuse of the debate justified eugenics.

Galton's story reminds us that scientists have ethical responsibilities and that their theories can cause harm.

The eugenics movement, inspired by Galton, led to policies with negative consequences, highlighting the need to critically evaluate scientific ideas.

Steve Titus was wrongly convicted based on a mistaken eyewitness identification.

Loftus' research explores how misinformation can distort memories and highlights the reconstructive nature of memory.