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Questions and Answers
What physiological change occurs in infants within the first year related to the left ventricle?
What is a common cardiovascular condition in older adults?
How does aging affect the systolic blood pressure in older adults?
What is a major risk factor for developing hypertension in older adults?
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What characteristic change happens to the left ventricular wall as individuals age?
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What does an increase in ectopic beats indicate for older adults?
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What is the relationship between age and the risk of congestive cardiac failure?
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Which underlying condition is often associated with Peripheral Arterial Disease (PAD) in older adults?
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What is the primary purpose of auscultation in cardiovascular assessment?
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Which maternal factors can affect the cardiovascular assessment of infants?
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Which method is used for assessing the jugular venous pulse?
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What should be done before applying anti-embolic stockings?
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What is a significant risk factor for cardiovascular disease associated with physical activity?
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In older adults, which aspect is essential to consider during cardiovascular assessment?
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During palpation, which artery should be assessed one at a time?
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What step is included in the preparation for a cardiovascular assessment?
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What is the recommended technique for applying anti-embolic stockings?
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Which equipment is NOT typically used during a cardiovascular assessment?
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What should be compared with the apical pulse during auscultation?
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Which assessment technique is not performed in the cardiovascular assessment?
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What factor related to children's cardiovascular assessment is critical to monitor?
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What role does compliance with therapy play in cardiovascular assessment?
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How often should anti-embolic stockings be removed?
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What aspect of the environment could impact activities of daily living (ADLs) in patients undergoing cardiovascular assessment?
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Which structure of the heart is responsible for preventing backflow of blood between the atria and ventricles?
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What is the primary formula for calculating cardiac output?
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What does preload refer to in the context of cardiac function?
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Which law explains the relationship between preload and stroke volume?
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What is the primary role of the greater vessels in the cardiovascular system?
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What must the ventricle generate to overcome afterload during contraction?
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How does increased contractility affect stroke volume?
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Which layer of the heart is primarily responsible for contraction?
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Study Notes
Overview of Cardiovascular System
- The heart is composed of three layers: pericardium, myocardium, and endocardium.
- The heart has four chambers: two atria and two ventricles.
- The atria and ventricles are separated by valves which prevent backflow of blood.
- The major arteries and veins are referred to as great vessels.
- There are two types of circulation: Pulmonary and Systemic.
- Pulmonary circulation involves the heart and lungs.
- Systemic circulation involves the heart and body
- The heart pumps approximately 6 liters of blood per minute through the body at rest.
- The heart can alter its output to meet metabolic needs.
- Preload and Afterload affect the heart's ability to output cardiac output.
- Cardiac Output (CO) is calculated by multiplying heart rate (HR) and stroke volume (SV).
- Preload is the venous return that builds up during diastole.
- Greater stretch leads to stronger heart contractions (Frank-Starling Law)
- Increased preload leads to increased stroke volume (the volume of blood ejected)
- Afterload is the opposing pressure that the ventricle must generate to open the aortic valve.
- Higher aortic pressure leads to higher resistance which the ventricle needs to overcome.
Anatomical & Pathophysiological Considerations
Infants and Children
- At birth, blood oxygenation switches from the placenta to the lungs.
- The left ventricle mass reaches adult ratio by the age of 1 year.
- Heart murmurs are common in children.
Older Adults
- Systolic blood pressure increases with age due to thickening and stiffening of large arteries.
- Diastolic blood pressure decreases with age (after 68 years).
- The heart is more likely to experience an increase in left ventricular wall thickness and a decrease in the heart's ability to augment cardiac output while exercising.
- There is no change in resting heart rate or cardiac output with ageing.
- Older Adults are at an increased risk for dysrhythmia.
- Ectopic beats are common (asymptomatic).
- There is an increased incidence of bundle branch block.
Cardiovascular Conditions in Older Adults
Cardiovascular Disease (CVD)
- Most common Cardiovascular Diseases include: Coronary Heart Disease, stroke, and heart failure.
- CVD accounts for almost 189% of deaths in people aged 65 and greater.
- CVD accounts for 25% of deaths in Australian Adults.
- Lifestyle factors are the primary cause of CVD.
Hypertension
- Hypertension is defined as a blood pressure of 140/98 or higher.
- The incidence of hypertension increases with age, which leads to damage of the heart and other organs.
Congestive Cardiac Failure
- Older adults (ages 75+) are 10x more likely to experience congestive heart failure than younger adults.
Peripheral Arterial Disease (PAD)
- Risk of PAD increases if an underlying condition is present, ie diabetes.
Atrial Fibrillation (AF)
- AF is a type of arrhythmia that occurs in both adults and children.
- There is an increased risk of AF with age.
- Increased physical activity decreases the risk of death from cardiovascular disease.
Cardiovascular Assessment
Subjective Data
Additional History
- Infants
- Mother’s health during pregnancy
- Feeding Pattern (cyanatic changes)
- Growth and activity (meeting developmental outcomes)
- Children
- Growth and activity (meeting developmental outcomes)
- History of chest pain
- History of respiratory illnesses
- Presence of genetic abnormalities
- Older Adults
- Medical history (presence of comorbidities)
- Medication profile (Prescription and Over-the-Counter)
- Understanding of medication side effects
- Compliance with therapy
- Environment
- Impact on ADL's
Preparation and Equipment during Assessment
- Preparation
- Examine carotid arteries while seated.
- Assess jugular veins and precordium with the person supine and head slightly elevated.
- Ensure privacy.
- Equipment
- Marking pen
- Small centimeter ruler
- Stethoscope
- Alcohol wipe
- Hand hygiene supplies
Objective Data
- Inspection
- Jugular venous pulse
- Anterior chest (pulsations)
- Palpation
- One carotid artery at a time
- Apical pulse (location, size, amplitude, duration)
- Across precordium to assess for possible pulsations
- Percussion
- Not performed
- Auscultation
- Apical pulse (listen with diaphragm then bell)
- Note rate and rhythm
- Compare with radial pulse
Application of Anti-embolic Stockings
- Before applying:
- Assess patient’s skin perfusion.
- Look for any signs of:
- Fragility
- Dermatitis
- Oedema
- Measure patient's limb to determine stocking size.
- Apply stocking.
- Reduce friction during application by using a slider.
- Remove stocking every 8 hours for approximately 30 minutes.
- Assess skin integrity.
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Description
Test your knowledge on the cardiovascular system with this quiz. From the structure of the heart to the types of circulation, explore key concepts such as cardiac output, preload, and afterload. Perfect for students studying human anatomy and physiology.
