patho chapter 20 review

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Questions and Answers

What suffix is used to denote benign tumors?

-blastoma

-sarcoma

-oma (correct)

-carcinoma

Which of the following are characteristics of malignant tumors?

Normal organization and contact inhibition

Undergo apoptosis effectively

Encapsulated and well differentiated

Rapid reproduction and invasive growth (correct)

In the nomenclature of tumors, which term refers to tumors derived from connective tissue?

Lymphomas

Carcinomas

Adenomas

Sarcomas (correct)

What is a common systemic effect associated with malignant tumors?

Weight loss and cachexia Signup and view all the answers

Which diagnostic test is commonly associated with breast and ovarian cancer detection?

BRCA1 and BRCA2 genetic testing Signup and view all the answers

What process refers to the formation of new blood vessels in tumors?

Angiogenesis Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of benign tumors?

Invasive growth Signup and view all the answers

What effect do tumors have in paraneoplastic syndrome?

They release substances affecting neurological function. Signup and view all the answers

Regular self-examinations are important for which purpose?

Detecting tumors at an early stage Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about malignant tumors is TRUE?

They lack control of mitosis and can invade other tissues. Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of staging cancer?

To standardize comparative studies of treatments and outcomes Signup and view all the answers

What is the process by which cancer cells spread to distant sites?

Metastasis Signup and view all the answers

What does the 'M' in the TNM system represent?

Spread of tumor (metastasis) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a risk factor for cancer?

Chronic irritation and inflammation Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of radiation therapy in cancer treatment?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

What is a common adverse effect of chemotherapy?

Nausea and vomiting Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for a cancer-free state generally defined as 5-year survival without recurrence?

Cure Signup and view all the answers

Which type of cancer has an excellent prognosis, with limited exceptions?

Skin cancer Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process of carcinogens being transferred into cancer cells?

Carcinogenesis Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of immunotherapy in cancer treatment?

To suppress the growth of cancer cells Signup and view all the answers

What does 'T' represent in the TNM staging system?

Size of the primary tumor Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of direct local spread of a tumor?

Uterine carcinoma invading the vagina Signup and view all the answers

What is a common risk factor for developing cancer?

Exposure to ultraviolet rays Signup and view all the answers

Which treatment method may cause mutations or alterations in a patient's target DNA?

Radiation therapy Signup and view all the answers

Which adverse effect is specifically associated with radiation therapy?

Fatigue and tissue breakdown Signup and view all the answers

Which cancer treatment approach is primarily aimed at reducing pain in late-stage cancers?

Palliative treatment Signup and view all the answers

In terms of prognosis, which cancer type is known for its poor outcomes due to its hidden nature?

Ovarian cancer Signup and view all the answers

What factor can lead to increased risk of infection during chemotherapy?

Bone marrow depression Signup and view all the answers

What dietary change can help reduce the risk of cancer?

Reduced fats and increased fiber Signup and view all the answers

What is indicated by the term 'nadir' in the context of chemotherapy?

The lowest cell count during treatment Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic differentiates malignant tumors from benign tumors?

Malignant tumors do not undergo apoptosis. Signup and view all the answers

What factor can indicate the presence of a tumor based on calcium levels?

Increased calcium levels Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the process by which tumors stimulate the formation of blood vessels?

Angiogenesis Signup and view all the answers

Which is a common systemic effect associated with malignant tumors?

Weight loss and cachexia Signup and view all the answers

What is the common method of diagnosing the nature of a tumor?

Biopsy Signup and view all the answers

In the nomenclature of tumors, what does the suffix -oma signify?

Benign tumor Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the warning signs of cancer that requires further investigation?

Sudden weight loss Signup and view all the answers

What occurs when cells undergo mutation leading to cancer?

Cell overgrowth Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant feature of malignant tumors in terms of tissue interaction?

They infiltrate and spread into surrounding tissues. Signup and view all the answers

What are paraneoplastic syndromes primarily associated with?

Substances released by tumors affecting distant organs. Signup and view all the answers

Benign tumors do not spread into surrounding tissue.

True Signup and view all the answers

Malignant tumors are characterized by a lack of control over mitosis.

True Signup and view all the answers

Tumors with the suffix -sarcoma are benign.

False Signup and view all the answers

Angiogenesis refers to the degeneration of blood vessels.

False Signup and view all the answers

Paraneoplastic syndrome only affects the digestive system.

False Signup and view all the answers

Malignant tumors can sometimes be detected through the measurement of tumor markers in blood tests.

True Signup and view all the answers

All tumors are classified as either malignant or benign, but not both.

True Signup and view all the answers

Weight loss and cachexia are common systemic effects of malignant tumors.

True Signup and view all the answers

The presence of increased calcium levels can serve as an indicator of a tumor.

True Signup and view all the answers

BRCA1 and BRCA2 are genetic tests specifically used to detect skin cancer.

False Signup and view all the answers

The TMN system is commonly used to stage cancer.

True Signup and view all the answers

Bone marrow depression is a potential adverse effect of radiation therapy.

False Signup and view all the answers

Carcinogenesis refers to the process of carcinogens being transferred into healthy cells.

False Signup and view all the answers

Cancer-free status is generally defined as a 10-year survival without recurrence.

False Signup and view all the answers

Adverse effects of chemotherapy can include nausea and hair loss.

True Signup and view all the answers

Immunotherapy primarily aims to kill cancer cells directly.

False Signup and view all the answers

Ovarian cancer typically has a poor prognosis due to its hidden nature.

True Signup and view all the answers

Regular medical examinations can help reduce the risk of cancer.

True Signup and view all the answers

Some cancers have well-established risk factors, including environmental and hereditary elements.

True Signup and view all the answers

Diet high in fiber and low in fats may help reduce the risk of cancer.

True Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Cancer

Cancer is an overgrowth of cells that can lead to a mass of abnormal cells, known as a tumor or neoplasm.
Tumors can be either benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous).

Characteristics of Tumors

Benign tumors:
- Have a tissue name plus the suffix –oma (e.g., adenoma)
- Encapsulated
Malignant tumors (cancers):
- Have a tissue name plus the suffix –carcinoma (e.g., adenocarcinoma)
- Rapid reproduction
- Infiltrate or spread into surrounding tissue
- Lack control of mitosis and do not undergo apoptosis
- No normal organization or differentiation
- No contact inhibition
- Abnormal cell membranes
- Altered surface antigens
- Do not adhere to each other
- Often break loose from mass
- Can invade other tissues and may spread to distant sites

Warning Signs of Cancer

Weight loss and cachexia
Generalized weakness
Sunken skin and wasting away
Paraneoplastic syndrome (tumors release substances that affect neurological function and may have hormonal effects)

Diagnostic Tests

BRCA1 and BRCA2 (genetic tests for breast or ovarian cancer)
Biopsy (sample of tissue to determine if benign or malignant)
Routine screening (essential for early detection and monitoring after treatment)
Self-examination (early detection if done consistently, especially for breast, testicular, and skin cancers)
Blood tests (measure blood cell levels during treatment and may detect tumor markers, e.g., PSA test)
Radiographic, ultrasound, MRI, and CT (methods of visualizing changes in tissues or organs)

Spread of Malignant Tumors

Invasion (local spread into adjacent tissues)
Metastasis (spread to distant sites via blood, lymph, or other body fluids)

Staging Cancer

Essential for standardizing comparative studies of treatments and outcomes
Uses the TNM system:
- T (tumor): size of the primary tumor
- N (lymph nodes): involvement of regional lymph nodes
- M (metastasis): spread of tumor (metastasis)

Carcinogenesis

Process of carcinogens that are transferred into cancer cells
Environmental effects (change in gene expression)
Hereditary (in some cases)
Infection (in some cases, e.g., cervical and hepatic cancers)

Risk Factors

Radiation (increased risk with higher cumulative dosage)
Chemicals (check for health and safety information)
Biological factors (chronic irritation and inflammation, age, diet, hormones)
Risk reduction:
- Limit UV exposure
- Regular medical and dental examinations
- Self-examination
- Diet (increased fiber content, reduced fats, antioxidants)

Treatment

Depends on specific cancer and health of the client
Surgery, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, radiation, or a combination of these
Palliative treatment to reduce pain in late-stage cancers
CHEMO: killing cancer cells
IMMUNOTHERAPY: suppressing cancer
Radiation therapy:
- May be used alone or combined with other therapies
- Causes mutations or alterations in target DNA
- Most effective in rapidly dividing cells
- Some types of cancers are radioresistant There are various methods of administration, including external sources (e.g., cobalt machine) and internal insertion of radioactive material at the tumor

Adverse Effects of Radiation

Bone marrow depression
Decreased leukocytes (increased risk of infection)
Decreased erythrocytes (fatigue, tissue breakdown)
Decreased platelets (excessive bleeding)
Infertility (caused by abdominal radiation)
Nonspecific fatigue and lethargy (can lead to mental depression)

Adverse Effects of Chemotherapy

Bone marrow depression
Nausea
Epithelial cell change
Hair loss
Breakdown of skin and mucosa
Damage to specific areas (e.g., fibrosis in the lungs, damage to myocardial cells, kidney damage)
Skin changes (skin to the affected area will look different)

Nutrition

Patients with advanced cancer are often malnourished
Contributing factors:
- Change in taste sensation
- Anorexia
- Vomiting and/or diarrhea from treatments
- Sore mouth or loss of teeth
- Pain and fatigue
- Malabsorption caused by inflammation in the digestive tract

Prognosis

Cancer-free state generally defined as 5-year survival without recurrence
Some cancers (e.g., childhood leukemias) can be considered cured after a 10-year, cancer-free period
Remission: no clinical signs of cancer, but client may experience several remissions
Life expectancy and death rates for specific cancers vary

Examples of Malignant Tumors

Skin cancer: visible, easily diagnosed, and treated; excellent prognosis, except for malignant melanoma
Ovarian cancer: poor prognosis due to hidden nature of cancer; high mortality rates
Brain tumors: both benign and malignant tumors are life-threatening due to compression of brain tissue; primary tumor usually fatal, thus, no metastasis
Basal cell carcinoma: one of the fastest-spreading tumors in the body

Cancer Overview

Cancer involves the uncontrolled growth of cells due to mutations.
Neoplasms refer to tumors, which can be benign or malignant.
Benign tumors are named with the tissue type followed by "-oma" (e.g., adenoma).
Malignant tumors are referred to with the tissue type followed by "-carcinoma" (e.g., adenocarcinomas) and have the potential to spread.

Tumor Characteristics

Benign tumors are encapsulated and do not infiltrate surrounding tissues.
Malignant tumors reproduce rapidly, invade nearby tissues, and often metastasize to distant sites.
Characteristics of malignant tumors include lack of mitosis control, no apoptosis, abnormal cell membranes, altered surface antigens, and loss of contact inhibition.

Angiogenesis and Nutrition

Angiogenesis refers to the development of new blood vessels; certain tumor cells secrete growth factors that facilitate this process.
Elevated calcium levels may indicate tumor presence, as some tumors secrete calcium.

Warning Signs and Diagnosis

Systemic effects of malignant tumors can include weight loss, weakness, and cachexia.
Warning signs also encompass abnormal skin and significant appetite loss.
Diagnostic tests include BRCA1 and BRCA2 for breast/ovarian cancer, biopsies, routine screenings, and self-examinations for early detection.
Blood tests can reveal tumor markers (e.g., PSA test) indicating specific cancer types.

Tumor Spread Methods

Local spread occurs when tumor cells invade adjacent tissues (e.g., uterine carcinoma spreading to the vagina).
Metastasis involves tumor cells spreading to distant locations through blood or lymphatic systems (e.g., colon carcinoma spreading to the liver).

Cancer Staging

Cancer staging assesses the extent of disease to guide treatment and prognosis using the TMN system:
- T (tumor) for size of the primary tumor,
- N (lymph nodes) for regional lymph node involvement,
- M (metastasis) for spread to distant sites.

Carcinogenesis and Risk Factors

Carcinogenesis involves environmental factors contributing to mutations leading to cancer.
Established risk factors include radiation exposure, chemical exposure (e.g., asbestos, heavy metals), chronic inflammation, age, and diet.
Protective measures include limiting sun exposure, regular health check-ups, and maintaining a nutritious diet rich in antioxidants.

Cancer Treatment Modalities

Treatment options vary by cancer type and may include surgery, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and radiation.
Treatment effectiveness hinges on cancer stage and patient health. Some treatments may lead to remission and potential cure.
Palliative care may be administered for symptom management in advanced stages.

Radiation Therapy

Radiation therapy can target rapidly dividing cancer cells, and may be delivered through external or internal methods.
Adverse effects include bone marrow depression, fatigue, tissue damage, and infertility from abdominal radiation.

Chemotherapy Side Effects

Chemotherapy can cause bone marrow depression, nausea, hair loss, and damage to various organs.
Nadir refers to the lowest blood cell count during treatment, with regular blood tests required to monitor health.

Nutritional Considerations

Malnutrition is common in advanced cancer patients, influenced by taste changes, loss of appetite, vomiting, and pain.
Increased fiber intake and consumption of fruits and vegetables can improve overall health.

Prognosis and Remission

A cancer-free state is typically defined as a five-year survival without recurrence. Some types may consider a ten-year cancer-free period as a cure.
Remission refers to the absence of clinical signs of cancer, with many patients experiencing multiple remissions over their lives.

Types of Malignant Tumors

Skin cancer is highly visible and often easily treated but can be deadly in cases like melanoma.
Ovarian cancer often has a poor prognosis due to its asymptomatic progression.
Brain tumors, whether benign or malignant, threaten life by compressing brain tissue.
Basal cell carcinoma is among the fastest spreading tumors in the body.

Cancer Overview

Cancer involves the uncontrolled growth of cells due to mutations.
Neoplasms refer to tumors, which can be benign or malignant.
Benign tumors are named with the tissue type followed by "-oma" (e.g., adenoma).
Malignant tumors are referred to with the tissue type followed by "-carcinoma" (e.g., adenocarcinomas) and have the potential to spread.

Tumor Characteristics

Benign tumors are encapsulated and do not infiltrate surrounding tissues.
Malignant tumors reproduce rapidly, invade nearby tissues, and often metastasize to distant sites.
Characteristics of malignant tumors include lack of mitosis control, no apoptosis, abnormal cell membranes, altered surface antigens, and loss of contact inhibition.

Angiogenesis and Nutrition

Angiogenesis refers to the development of new blood vessels; certain tumor cells secrete growth factors that facilitate this process.
Elevated calcium levels may indicate tumor presence, as some tumors secrete calcium.

Warning Signs and Diagnosis

Systemic effects of malignant tumors can include weight loss, weakness, and cachexia.
Warning signs also encompass abnormal skin and significant appetite loss.
Diagnostic tests include BRCA1 and BRCA2 for breast/ovarian cancer, biopsies, routine screenings, and self-examinations for early detection.
Blood tests can reveal tumor markers (e.g., PSA test) indicating specific cancer types.

Tumor Spread Methods

Local spread occurs when tumor cells invade adjacent tissues (e.g., uterine carcinoma spreading to the vagina).
Metastasis involves tumor cells spreading to distant locations through blood or lymphatic systems (e.g., colon carcinoma spreading to the liver).

Cancer Staging

Cancer staging assesses the extent of disease to guide treatment and prognosis using the TMN system:
- T (tumor) for size of the primary tumor,
- N (lymph nodes) for regional lymph node involvement,
- M (metastasis) for spread to distant sites.

Carcinogenesis and Risk Factors

Carcinogenesis involves environmental factors contributing to mutations leading to cancer.
Established risk factors include radiation exposure, chemical exposure (e.g., asbestos, heavy metals), chronic inflammation, age, and diet.
Protective measures include limiting sun exposure, regular health check-ups, and maintaining a nutritious diet rich in antioxidants.

Cancer Treatment Modalities

Treatment options vary by cancer type and may include surgery, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and radiation.
Treatment effectiveness hinges on cancer stage and patient health. Some treatments may lead to remission and potential cure.
Palliative care may be administered for symptom management in advanced stages.

Radiation Therapy

Radiation therapy can target rapidly dividing cancer cells, and may be delivered through external or internal methods.
Adverse effects include bone marrow depression, fatigue, tissue damage, and infertility from abdominal radiation.

Chemotherapy Side Effects

Chemotherapy can cause bone marrow depression, nausea, hair loss, and damage to various organs.
Nadir refers to the lowest blood cell count during treatment, with regular blood tests required to monitor health.

Nutritional Considerations

Malnutrition is common in advanced cancer patients, influenced by taste changes, loss of appetite, vomiting, and pain.
Increased fiber intake and consumption of fruits and vegetables can improve overall health.

Prognosis and Remission

A cancer-free state is typically defined as a five-year survival without recurrence. Some types may consider a ten-year cancer-free period as a cure.
Remission refers to the absence of clinical signs of cancer, with many patients experiencing multiple remissions over their lives.

Types of Malignant Tumors

Skin cancer is highly visible and often easily treated but can be deadly in cases like melanoma.
Ovarian cancer often has a poor prognosis due to its asymptomatic progression.
Brain tumors, whether benign or malignant, threaten life by compressing brain tissue.
Basal cell carcinoma is among the fastest spreading tumors in the body.

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Test your knowledge of tumor characteristics, diagnosis, and related medical concepts. Covers benign and malignant tumors, tissue types, and diagnostic tests.