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Questions and Answers
What position describes lying face downward?
What position describes lying face downward?
Which term correctly describes the location of a structure towards the back of the body?
Which term correctly describes the location of a structure towards the back of the body?
What plane divides the body into anterior and posterior sections?
What plane divides the body into anterior and posterior sections?
Which term indicates a position that is closer to the midline of the body?
Which term indicates a position that is closer to the midline of the body?
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What is the correct definition of the Transverse plane?
What is the correct definition of the Transverse plane?
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What is the primary function of the cranial cavity?
What is the primary function of the cranial cavity?
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Which structure is part of the thoracic cavity's mediastinum?
Which structure is part of the thoracic cavity's mediastinum?
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What is the main role of serous membranes in the body?
What is the main role of serous membranes in the body?
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Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of life?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of life?
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Homeostasis is primarily maintained by which physiological systems?
Homeostasis is primarily maintained by which physiological systems?
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Which fluid is considered intracellular fluid (ICF)?
Which fluid is considered intracellular fluid (ICF)?
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What occurs when homeostasis is disrupted?
What occurs when homeostasis is disrupted?
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Which of the following is part of the abdominal cavity?
Which of the following is part of the abdominal cavity?
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What is interstitial fluid primarily responsible for?
What is interstitial fluid primarily responsible for?
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Which of the following survival needs is required to regulate body temperature?
Which of the following survival needs is required to regulate body temperature?
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What is the relationship between structure and function in human anatomy?
What is the relationship between structure and function in human anatomy?
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Which of the following is NOT one of the eleven organ systems in the human body?
Which of the following is NOT one of the eleven organ systems in the human body?
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What is the primary function of the endocrine system?
What is the primary function of the endocrine system?
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Which imaging technique is used to study cellular structures?
Which imaging technique is used to study cellular structures?
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What is one of the major functions of the muscular system?
What is one of the major functions of the muscular system?
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Which anatomical term describes a position closer to the midline of the body?
Which anatomical term describes a position closer to the midline of the body?
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Which component of the cardiovascular system distributes heat and assists in temperature control?
Which component of the cardiovascular system distributes heat and assists in temperature control?
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What basic tissues are combined to form more complex organs?
What basic tissues are combined to form more complex organs?
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Which of the following is a primary component of the urinary system?
Which of the following is a primary component of the urinary system?
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What is the main function of the respiratory system?
What is the main function of the respiratory system?
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Which term refers to a structure toward the back of the body?
Which term refers to a structure toward the back of the body?
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What aspect does histology focus on within human anatomy?
What aspect does histology focus on within human anatomy?
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Which anatomical term indicates a position farther from the trunk?
Which anatomical term indicates a position farther from the trunk?
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What is a characteristic of mild disruptions in homeostasis?
What is a characteristic of mild disruptions in homeostasis?
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Which component of the homeostatic system is responsible for receiving and processing information?
Which component of the homeostatic system is responsible for receiving and processing information?
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What is the role of baroreceptors in blood pressure regulation?
What is the role of baroreceptors in blood pressure regulation?
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What happens during a positive feedback loop in the body?
What happens during a positive feedback loop in the body?
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In the context of body temperature regulation, what is the effector's role?
In the context of body temperature regulation, what is the effector's role?
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What defines the set point in a homeostatic system?
What defines the set point in a homeostatic system?
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During childbirth, how does the body utilize positive feedback?
During childbirth, how does the body utilize positive feedback?
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What is the primary outcome of a negative feedback loop in homeostasis?
What is the primary outcome of a negative feedback loop in homeostasis?
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Study Notes
Human Anatomy and Physiology - Week 1
- Background Reading: Seeley's Anatomy and Physiology, chapter 1, by Dr. Helen McRobie.
Outline
- Introduction to the module
- Visualising the body
- Overview of organ systems
- Anatomical terminology
- Body cavities
- Homeostasis
Anatomy and Physiology Throughout the Biomedical Science Degree
- Year 1: Human Anatomy and Physiology (HAP), Core Biology
- Year 2: Physiology of Organ Systems, Diagnostic Techniques in Pathology, Principles of Pathology
- Year 3: Current Advances in Biomedical Science, Clinical Immunology, Human Pathology, Blood Sciences, Specialist Topics in Biomedical Science
HAP Assessments
-
Trimester 1:
- Element 010: Practical skills assessment (microscopy) - 10%
- Element 011: Written coursework (group poster) - 20%
- Element 012: Test (60 MCQs) - 20%
-
Trimester 2:
- Practical skills assessment (pipetting) - 10%
- Written coursework (scientific writing) - 20%
- Test (60 MCQs) - 20%
Canvas (Virtual Learning Environment)
-
Week 1 Materials:
- All lecture materials
- Practical protocols (if applicable)
- Recordings
- Other materials
- Learning Resources (Week 1): Useful notes on the topic and Connect links.
Anatomy and Physiology of the Human Body
- Anatomy - the study of structure
- Physiology - the study of function
- Structure and function are always related
Structure (Anatomy) and Function (Physiology)
- Structure (alveoli of lung): large surface area
- Function: efficient gas exchange for blood
- Structure is determined by function
Gross (Macroscopic) Anatomy
- This refers to anatomical structures visible to the naked eye.
Dissection
- Anatomical study using cutting and separating of body parts.
- Demonstrates the arrangement and relationships of organs and structures.
In Vivo Imaging Techniques
- X-rays
- Computer tomography scans (CT scan)
- Ultrasound
- Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
- Positron Emission Tomographic scan (PET)
X-ray (Anatomical Imaging)
- Extremely shortwave electromagnetic radiation
- Passes through the body, exposing a photographic plate.
- Shows underexposed areas (radiography) as white on film.
- Limited to 2-D images
Ultrasound (Anatomical Imaging)
- Second-oldest imaging technique using high-frequency sound waves.
- Emitted and received from a transmitter/receiver over the skin area.
- Reflected sound waves are analyzed by a computer.
- Creates images known as sonograms.
- Commonly used for evaluating fetal development during pregnancy & assessing conditions/organ structure.
Computed Tomography (CT)
- Computer-analyzed X-ray images
- Rotating X-ray tube around patient, feeding images into a computer
- Computer constructs 2-D image "slices."
- Producing 3-D images from stacked slices.
Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA)
- A technique that builds on CT scanning which uses a radiopaque dye.
- 3-D image of an organ produced.
- Then another image taken after dye is injected.
- The first image is subtracted from the second; highlighted areas showing enhanced differences of where dye was injected.
- Commonly used in angioplasty.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
- Directs radio waves at a person within a large electromagnetic field.
- Creates a detailed, highly-detailed view of body tissues based on differences in how various tissues and organs interact with the radio waves.
- Useful in detecting certain types of cancer and assessing various body structures.
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
- Analyses the metabolic state of different body tissues/organs.
- Cells that metabolize at a higher rate absorb labeled glucose
- Decay in radioactivity creates positrons, and gamma rays.
- Detects cells with high metabolic activity, useful in assessing brain function and activity.
Visualizing the Body
- Endoscopy
- Barium meal
- Echocardiography
Microscopic Anatomy
- Histology: the study of tissues
- Cytology: the study of cellular structures
The Basic Units of Life
- Cells - basic structural & functional units of organisms
- Average adult has nearly 100 trillion cells
- Around 300 different kinds of cells
- About 210 kinds distinguished under light microscopy
Different Cell Functions
- Cells are diverse and organised into various tissues and organs.
The Four Basic Tissues
- All cells in the body combine to form four basic tissue types; Connective, Epithelial, Nervous, Muscular
Tissues
- Similar cells and substances surrounding them work together to carry out specialised activities.
- Tissues exhibit diverse structures ranging from hard to soft.
Levels of Organization
- Shows how atoms form molecules which form cells which form tissues which form organs which form organ systems which form organisms
Eleven Organ Systems
- Urinary
- Digestive
- Cardiovascular
- Integumentary
- Skeletal
- Respiratory
- Reproductive
- Nervous
- Endocrine
- Lymphatic
- Muscular
Integumentary system
- Major components: skin, hair, sweat glands, nails
- Major functions: protection from environmental hazards, regulates body temperature, provides sensory information, Vitamin D production
Muscular system
- Major components: skeletal muscles, tendons
- Major functions: Movement, protection & support for other tissues, generates heat maintaining body temperature.
Skeletal system
- Major components: bones, cartilage, associated ligaments, bone marrow
- Major functions: Support, protection, store minerals, blood cell formation.
Nervous system
- Major components: Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, sense organs
- Major functions: Directs immediate & long term responses, interprets & coordinates activities of other organ systems, detects changes in external & internal environment.
Endocrine system
- Major components: Pineal gland, Hypothalamus, Thymus, Pituitary gland, Thyroid gland, Pancreas, Adrenal glands, Testes, Ovaries, Endocrine tissues in other systems
- Major functions: Regulates body activities via hormones, adjusts metabolic activity, controls many structural & functional changes during development.
Cardiovascular system
- Major components: Heart, blood, blood vessels
- Major functions: Distributes blood cells, water, dissolved materials, nutrients, waste products, oxygen, carbon dioxide, regulates body temperature, contributes to immunity.
Lymphatic system
- Major components: Spleen, Thymus, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, tonsils
- Major functions: Defends against infection and disease, returns tissue fluids to bloodstream.
Respiratory system
- Major components: Nasal cavities, sinuses, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
- Major functions: Transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood, removes carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled air, produces sounds as air flows through vocal cords.
Digestive system
- Major components: Teeth, tongue, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas
- Major functions: Processes, digests food, absorbs nutrients, conserves water, stores energy reserves, eliminates solid wastes.
Urinary system
- Major components: Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
- Major functions: Produces, stores, eliminates waste products from blood, controls water balance, regulates blood ion concentrations, pH.
Reproductive system (male)
- Major components: Testes, epididymis, ductus deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, penis, scrotum
- Major functions: Production of gametes (sperm), production of hormones.
Reproductive system (female)
- Major components: Ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, labia, clitoris, mammary glands.
- Major functions: Produces gametes (ova), Supports developing embryo, Provides milk for infant.
Body Fluids (and Homeostasis)
- Intracellular fluid (ICF): fluid within cells
- Extracellular fluid (ECF): fluid outside cells, including interstitial fluid (between cells & tissues).
- Important for maintaining consistent body composition and volume for optimal cellular function.
Internal Environment
- Cellular function dependent upon regulating the composition of interstitial fluid.
- Components (blood vessels, interstitial fluid, cells) closely interdependent for transport of materials and waste removal.
Control of Homeostasis
- Physical insults: e.g. intense heat, lack of oxygen
- Changes in internal environment: e.g. drop in blood glucose.
- Physiological stress: e.g. exercise, thirst
- Disruptions: mild temporary, intense/prolonged
Feedback Systems
- Cycle of events: body constantly monitored, monitored variables controlled.
- Basic components: Receptor, Control center, Effector
Homeostasis Requirements
- Receptor: sensitive to particular stimuli (e.g. thermoreceptors).
- Control centre: processes information (usually brain), sends commands.
- Effector: responds to commands (e.g. muscles, glands).
Set Points
- Values of regulated variables fluctuate around a set point to establish a normal range.
- Set point: ideal normal value of a variable.
Changes in blood pressure during exercise
- Blood pressure fluctuates throughout exercise impacting the circulatory system.
Feedback System (BP Regulation)
- Stimulus increases blood pressure
- Input: Baroreceptors detect higher blood pressure
- Integration: Brain interprets input and sends signals to cardiovascular system
- Responses in blood vessels & hearts
- Output: Reduced heart rate and blood vessels cause BP to drop returning to normal levels.
Negative Feedback regulation of Body Functions (Blood Sugar)
- High blood sugar: Promotes insulin release, stimulates glycogen breakdown
- Low blood sugar: Stimulates glucagon release, stimulates glycogen formation.
Negative Feedback regulation of Body Temperature
- Receptors: monitor body temperature
- Control Centres: compare & react to actual & set body temperature levels, sending impulses to effectors.
- Effectors: sweat glands & blood vessels in skin respond as needed to maintain temperature.
Positive Feedback Systems
- Response amplifies initial stimulus (e.g., childbirth).
- Useful in situations requiring rapid changes, but potentially harmful if not stopped (e.g. hemorrhage).
Positive Feedback- Blood Clotting
- Blood vessel damaged
- Platelets adhere to the site releasing chemicals.
- More platelets attracted to site.
- Clotting proceeds until damage is repaired.
Positive Feedback- Childbirth
- Uterine contractions cause vaginal opening
- Stretch-sensitive receptors in the cervix send signals to the brain.
- Oxytocin is released into the blood.
- Enhanced contractions & baby pushes further down the uterus until birth
Planes of the Body, Through the Body
- Sagital: Divides the body into right & left portions.
- Median: Sagital plane dividing the body down the midline; parallel to median.
- Frontal (Coronal): Divides body into anterior & posterior (front & back) sections; frontal sections are perpendicular.
- Transverse (Horizontal): Divides the body into superior & inferior (top & bottom) sections; transverse sections perpendicular (at 90°) to both the sagittal and frontal sections.
- Oblique: cuts through the body at non-right angles (sections oblique to the frontal, sagittal or horizontal plane
Anatomy Sections of Organs
- Longitudinal: cuts along the length of an organ at a right angle.
- Transverse (cross): cut at a right angle to the organ's length
- Oblique: cuts into the organ at an angle other than a right angle
Body Cavities
- Body contains dorsal and ventral body cavities.
- Dorsal Body Cavity: cranial cavity protects the brain and the vertebral canal houses the spinal cord.
- Ventral body cavity: contains organs; divided into thoracic cavity (further divided into pleural cavities and mediastinum with the pericardial cavity); Abdominopelvic cavity (abdominal & pelvic cavities)
Serous Membranes
- Cover organs of trunk cavities & line the cavity walls
- Visceral serous membrane: lines the organs themselves
- Parietal serous membrane: lines the cavity walls
- Fluid produced provides lubrication between membranes
Location of Serous Membranes
- Pericardium: surrounds the heart
- Pleura: surrounds the lungs
- Peritoneum: surrounds many organs in abdominal & pelvic cavities
Characteristics of Life
- These include organisation, metabolism, responsiveness, growth, development, differentiation, reproduction & movement.
Survival Needs
- Essential for life including nutrients, oxygen, water, normal body temperature, & atmospheric pressure.
Homeostasis
- Maintaining a stable internal environment for optimal function.
- Maintaining a constant internal environment, despite external fluctuations.
- Physiological systems work in concert to maintain homeostasis.
- Constant monitoring of internal environment variables and the regulation through feedback are controlled by the nervous and endocrine systems. All variables are regulated through feedback loops
Homeostasis and Body Fluids
- Maintaining the volume and composition of body fluids (ICF, ECF, Interstitial fluid)
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