Neuroscience Basics Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of axons?

  • To transmit signals away from the cell body. (correct)
  • To receive signals from other neurons.
  • To provide structural support for the neuron.
  • To produce neurotransmitters.

    • Which type of glial cell in the CNS is responsible for forming the myelin sheath around nerve fibers?

  • Oligodendrocytes (correct)
  • Ependymal cells
  • Astrocytes
  • Microglial cells

    • What is the function of neurotransmitters?

  • To regulate the flow of blood through the brain.
  • To provide structural support for neurons.
  • To transmit signals across synapses. (correct)
  • To generate electrical impulses.

    • Which type of glial cell is responsible for anchoring neurons to capillaries?

    <p>Astrocytes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between efferent and afferent nerves?

    <p>Efferent nerves transmit signals from the CNS to effector organs, while afferent nerves transmit signals from sensory organs to the CNS. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the autonomic nervous system?

    <p>To regulate the activity of smooth muscles, cardiac muscles and glands. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of a chemical synapse?

    <p>Facilitating the transmission of information between neurons. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is TRUE about the myelin sheath?

    <p>It acts as an insulator, speeding up nerve impulse transmission. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of nerve fiber conveys impulses from the skin, muscles, and joints?

    <p>Somatic sensory fibers (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is responsible for coordinating muscle control, maintaining balance, and fine-tuning movements?

    <p>Cerebellum (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the defining characteristic of a tract in the nervous system?

    <p>It is a bundle of axons located in the central nervous system. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structure in the brain serves as the relay center for sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex?

    <p>Thalamus (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of white matter in the brain?

    <p>It is composed primarily of myelinated axons. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the meninges?

    <p>To protect the central nervous system from injury and infection. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a function of the brainstem?

    <p>Analysis of sensory input (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the longitudinal fissure?

    <p>Dividing the cerebrum into left and right hemispheres (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most superficial layer of the meninges?

    <p>Dura mater (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a component of the diencephalon?

    <p>Pons (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the meninges contains cerebrospinal fluid?

    <p>Subarachnoid space (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main role of the hypothalamus in the endocrine system?

    <p>Coordinating the release of hormones (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a function of cerebrospinal fluid?

    <p>To provide nutrients and remove waste products from the CNS. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is neuroplasticity?

    <p>The ability of the brain to adapt and change in response to experience or injury. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following structures is responsible for regulating circadian rhythm?

    <p>Epithalamus (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the structure that connects the two hemispheres of the cerebrum?

    <p>Corpus callosum (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the artery that supplies the brain, eyes, nose, and forehead?

    <p>Internal Carotid Artery (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a branch of the Vertebral Artery?

    <p>Anterior Cerebral Artery (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the circle of arteries at the base of the brain?

    <p>Circle of Willis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a temporary alteration in brain function?

    <p>Concussion (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for tissue deprivation of blood supply?

    <p>Ischemia (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the neurotransmitter that acts as an excitotoxin in the brain?

    <p>Glutamate (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a symptom of a Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)?

    <p>Increased Heart Rate (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the Cerebrum?

    <p>Initiates and coordinates movement (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following brain regions is NOT directly involved in the functions of the basal nuclei?

    <p>Hypothalamus (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a function attributed to the basal nuclei?

    <p>Controlling respiration and heart rate (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which lobe is responsible for processing and giving meaning to auditory information?

    <p>Temporal (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the corpus callosum?

    <p>It connects the two hemispheres of the brain. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a function of the premotor cortex?

    <p>Regulating heart rate and breathing. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following areas of the brain is responsible for producing speech?

    <p>Broca's area (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which lobe is responsible for processing sensory information from the skin, muscles, and joints?

    <p>Parietal (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the premotor cortex and the primary motor cortex?

    <p>The premotor cortex is involved in planning movements, while the primary motor cortex executes movements. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most likely outcome of damage to the premotor cortex?

    <p>Difficulty with fine motor skills and coordination. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is TRUE about the frontal lobe?

    <p>It contains Broca's area, which is involved in speech production. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of the cerebral cortex?

    <p>It is the “executive suite” of the brain. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which two lobes are separated by the central sulcus?

    <p>Frontal and Parietal (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a function of the temporal lobe?

    <p>Processing auditory information (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the basal ganglia?

    <p>They regulate the intensity of slow movements. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of gray matter?

    <p>It is responsible for communication between brain regions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of nerve fibers are found in the cerebral white matter?

    <p>Myelinated fibers. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Nervous System Functions

    • The nervous system uses electrochemical signals for communication.
    • The central nervous system (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord.
    • The peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes cranial nerves and spinal nerves, connecting the CNS to the rest of the body.

    Nervous Tissue Types

    • Ganglion: A cluster of neuron cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
    • Nucleus: A cluster of neuron cell bodies in the central nervous system (CNS).
    • Nerve: A bundle of axons in the PNS.
    • Tract: A bundle of axons in the CNS.
    • Gray matter: Contains unmyelinated axons, cell bodies, dendrites, and axon terminals.
    • White matter: Contains myelinated axons.

    Parts of a Neuron

    • Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons.
    • Cell body: Contains the cell nucleus.
    • Nucleus: Contains the genetic material of the neuron.
    • Axon: Conducts electrical impulses along the neuron.
    • Myelin sheath: Insulates the axon and speeds up impulse transmission.
    • Axon terminal: Transmits signals to other neurons.

    Axon's Functional Characteristics

    • Axons generate nerve impulses and transmit them along the axolemma.
    • At the axon terminal, neurotransmitters are released into the extracellular space.
    • Neurotransmitters send a signal to a nearby neuron.

    Neuroglia in the CNS

    • Astrocytes: Most abundant; anchor neurons to capillaries, control chemical environment.
    • Microglial cells: Important in immunity, destroying invading microorganisms. Monitor neuron health.

    Ependymal cells

    • Ependymal cells circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and cushion the brain and spinal cord.

    Satellite cells

    • Satellite cells surround cell bodies in the PNS. Similar function to astrocytes in the CNS.

    Schwann cells

    • Schwann cells surround all nerve fibers and form myelin sheaths. Vital to regeneration of damaged peripheral nerves.

    Efferent vs Afferent Division of the PNS

    • Efferent (Motor): Signals from the CNS to effector organs.
      • Somatic: Voluntary movements; impulses to skeletal muscles.
      • Autonomic: Involuntary movements; impulses to cardiac, smooth muscles, and glands.
    • Afferent (Sensory): Signals to the CNS from sensory organs.
      • Somatic: Impulses from the skin, muscles, and joints
      • Autonomic: Impulses from visceral organs.

    Myelin Sheath Importance

    • The myelin sheath is a whitish, fatty layer on nerve fibers.
    • Protects and electrically insulates nerve fibers.
    • Increases speed of nerve impulses (action potentials).
    • Non-myelinated fibers conduct impulses more slowly.

    Multiple Sclerosis

    • Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune disorder.
    • The immune system attacks the myelin surrounding nerve fibers.
    • Causes hardened patches in the brain and spinal cord.
    • Disrupts communication between the CNS and the rest of the body.

    Membrane Potentials

    • Neurons communicate through electrochemical signals.
    • Cell membranes provide resistance to current flow.
    • Action potentials (nerve impulses) are electrochemical signals over long distances. Dependent on the existence of a resting membrane potential.

    Action Potentials

    • Stimuli at nerve endings trigger gated ion channels, enabling ion flow across the plasma membrane.
    • If the inside of the plasma membrane becomes more positive than the resting membrane potential, an action potential is triggered.
    • An all-or-nothing principle applies—either the threshold potential is reached triggering an action potential or not.
    • Action potentials travel along the axon.
    • At the axon terminal, action potentials cross to neighboring neurons via a synapse.

    Stages of an AP Crossing a Chemical Synapse

    • Action potential arriving at the axon terminal opens calcium channels releasing calcium.
    • Calcium stimulates neurotransmitter release.
    • Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.
    • Formation of a postsynaptic potential.
    • Action potential at the postsynaptic neuron.

    Chemical Synapse

    • A synapse is a specialized junction mediating the transfer of information between neurons.

    Nerve vs Tract

    • Nerve: A bundle of axons in the PNS.
    • Tract: A bundle of axons in the CNS.

    Demyelinated Axons

    • Demyelination has consequences ranging from functional recovery to progressive decline.

    White Matter vs Gray Matter

    • White matter: Myelinated nerve axons.
    • Gray matter: Nonmyelinated nerve axons, and cell bodies.

    Neuroplasticity

    • Neuroplasticity is the brain’s ability to adapt and compensate for damage or disease. Enabling nerve cells to form new connections.

    Meninges

    • Meninges: Cover and protect the CNS
    •  Protect blood vessels and enclose venous sinuses.
    • Contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
    •  Form partitions in the skull (dura mater).
      • Consist of three layers (dura, arachnoid, pia matters)

    Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

    • Forms a liquid cushion around the brain
    • Reduces brain weight by 97%
    • Protects against blows and trauma.
    • Nourishes the brain and carries chemical signals.
    • Formed from blood plasma

    Blood Brain Barrier

    • Maintains a stable environment for the brain.
    • Substances from the blood must pass through capillary walls before entering neurons.
    • Tight junctions separate blood from nervous tissue
    • Simple diffusion allows lipid-soluble substances to pass through.
    •  Specific transport mechanisms are used for other materials (glucose, amino acids)
    • Prevents the entry of potentially harmful substances.

    Blood Supply to Brain

    • Supplied by internal carotid and vertebral arteries.
    • The circle of Willis ensures alternate blood supply if one vessel is blocked.

    Clinical Application: Cerebrovascular Accidents (CVAs)

    • Ischemia (tissue deprived of blood supply) causes brain tissue damage, leading to potential death/paralysis. This is called "stroke"

    Organization of Brain: Four Main Areas

    • Cerebrum: Initiates and coordinates movement, and regulates temperature, vision and sensory input.
    • Diencephalon: Includes the thalamus (relay center, emotion), hypothalamus (regulation of body functions, emotion), and epithalamus (pineal gland).
    • Cerebellum: Fine-tunes movements, maintains balance, and equilibrium.
    • Brainstem: Controls automatic behaviors, necessary for survival, including breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

    Major Landmarks: Fissures

    • Longitudinal fissure: Divides the cerebrum into left and right hemispheres.
    • Transverse fissure: Separates cerebrum from cerebellum.

    Cerebral Hemispheres

    • Left and right hemispheres are divided by the longitudinal fissure.
    • The corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres.

    Cerebral Cortex

    • Three functional areas: Sensory, motor, and association.
    • The outer layer is gray matter (non-myelinated axons and neuron cell bodies).
    • Responsible for conscious mind functions: Sensory input processing, memory, learning, cognitive thought, and voluntary movements

    Premotor Cortex

    • Located in the frontal lobe.
    • Acts to plan movements and control voluntary movement.
    • Important for learned, repetitious, or patterned motor skills.
    • Helps plan movements.

    Basal Nuclei

    • Regulates intensity of slow movement.
    • Associated with subthalamic nuclei and substantia nigra in the diencephalon.
    • Filters out incorrect responses.
    • Plays a role in cognition and emotion.

    Cerebral Lobes

    • Frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital, and insula lobes.

    Frontal Lobe

    • Largest lobe.
    • Location: Anterior portion of brain, protected by the frontal bone.
    • Separated from parietal/temporal lobes via central/lateral sulci.
    • Primary motor area, motor association areas, planning movements, skilled motor activities, memory.

    Temporal Lobe

    • Location: Inferior to frontal and parietal lobes
    • Auditory area, auditory association area.
    • Wernicke's area (speech comprehension), special senses, memory, emotions.

    Parietal Lobe

    • Location: Superior to the occipital lobe, protected by the parietal bone
    • Primary somatosensory area, sensory association areas, and processes senses.

    Occipital Lobe

    • Location: Posterior portion of brain, protected by the occipital bone, separated from the parietal lobe by the parietal-occipital sulcus
    • Primary and visual association areas, interprets vision.

    Insula

    • Smallest lobe within the cerebrum
    • Located deep within the cerebrum.
    • Function: Special senses (taste, hearing), Vestibular sensations, and visceral sensations.

    Sensory Homunculus

    • Represents the body map in the brain
    • Areas of the body with greater sensory density have a larger representation in the sensory cortex.

    Motor Homunculus

    • Represents the body map in the brain
    • Areas of the body with greater motor control demand have a larger representation in the motor cortex.

    Diencephalon

    • Includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus
    • Located between the brainstem and cerebrum
    • Consists of three paired gray matter structures.

    Thalamus

    • Relays sensory and motor information to the cerebral cortex.
    • Regulates emotion, processes general sensory information from skin, proprioceptors.

    Hypothalamus

    • Controls the autonomic nervous system
    • Regulates temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep, and many other body functions.
    • Regulates hormone and endocrine system function (oxytocin, ADH).

    Epithalamus

    • Contains the pineal gland
    • Secretes melatonin which regulates sleep-wake cycle .

    Brainstem

    • Controls automatic behaviors to maintain survival, for example, breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure
    • Includes: Midbrain, Pons, and Medulla Oblongata
    • Contains fiber tracts that connect higher and lower neural centers (important for coordination)
    • Nuclei of the 12 cranial nerves are located here

    Midbrain

    • Smallsest part of brainstem.
    • Contains cerebral peduncles that hold up the cerebrum.
    • Contains neurotransmitters (dopamine) central to Parkinson's Disease.
    • Contains visual response, coordination of movement.

    Pons

    • Located between the midbrain and medulla oblongata.
    • Composed of conduction tracts; relaying impulses between motor cortex and cerebellum.
    • Origin of cranial nerves V, VI, and VII.

    Medulla Oblongata

    • Inferior portion of the brainstem
    • Maintains cardiac, respiratory, and vasomotor functions.

    Cerebellum

    • Located posterior to pons and medulla oblongata
    • Controls muscle coordination and skilled movement
    • Maintains balance and equilibrium.

    Reticular Formation

    • Sends impulses to cerebral cortex to maintain consciousness and filter out unnecessary stimuli.
    • Important to sleep/wake cycle and inhibitions/filtering of sensory information.

    Language Areas

    • Broca's area involved speech production, understanding spoken and written words.
    • Wernicke's area involved in understanding spoken and written words, interpretation.

    Memory

    • Declarative: Memory of facts (names, dates, etc)
    • Procedural: Memory of skills (playing an instrument)
    • Emotional: Memory linked to an emotion
    • Short-term/Working memory: Temporary storage
    • Long-term memory: Permanent storage
    • Memory encoding to recall depends on several factors, including emotional, rehearsal, and association with other memories.

    Sleep and Wake Cycles

    • Sleep is a state of partial unconsciousness from which a person can be aroused by stimulation.
    • Cortical activity slows down while brainstem activity remains stable.
    • Types of sleep:  Non-rapid eye movement (NREM) and rapid eye movement (REM).

    How is Sleep Regulated?

    • Circadian rhythm, controlled by the hypothalamus, plays a large role.
    • Hypothalamus contains a biological clock.
    • Hypothalamus releases orexins that promote wakefulness.

    Parkinson's Disease Pathophysiology

    • Degeneration of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra reduces signals to the corpus striatum.
    • This impacts smooth and purposeful movements.

    Autonomic Nervous System

    • Controls involuntary functions

    • Sympathetic (fight or flight): Pupils dilate, heart rate increases, inhibits digestion

    • Parasympathetic (rest and digest): Pupils contract, heart rate slows, stimulates digestion

    • Both systems work together, in opposition.

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