Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the main function of enzymes?
What is the main function of enzymes?
Which of the following is NOT a common property of enzymes?
Which of the following is NOT a common property of enzymes?
What is the nature of the interaction between enzymes and their substrates?
What is the nature of the interaction between enzymes and their substrates?
What are Michaelis-Menten and Lineweaver-Burk plots associated with?
What are Michaelis-Menten and Lineweaver-Burk plots associated with?
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Which of the following is true about most enzymes?
Which of the following is true about most enzymes?
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Why are enzymes relevant in medicine?
Why are enzymes relevant in medicine?
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Which type of enzymes are involved in the transfer of functional groups from one molecule to another?
Which type of enzymes are involved in the transfer of functional groups from one molecule to another?
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What type of molecules act as helpers for some enzymes to function properly?
What type of molecules act as helpers for some enzymes to function properly?
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What determines which substrate(s) will bind to an enzyme?
What determines which substrate(s) will bind to an enzyme?
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Which type of enzymatic reaction involves the breaking of bonds between molecules?
Which type of enzymatic reaction involves the breaking of bonds between molecules?
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What do enzymes lower to enable metabolic reactions to proceed at a faster rate?
What do enzymes lower to enable metabolic reactions to proceed at a faster rate?
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What type of reactions involve the formation of bonds between molecules?
What type of reactions involve the formation of bonds between molecules?
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What are the non-protein chemical components that act as helpers for some enzymes to function properly?
What are the non-protein chemical components that act as helpers for some enzymes to function properly?
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In which type of enzymatic reaction are energy and simpler molecules released?
In which type of enzymatic reaction are energy and simpler molecules released?
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What is the unique shape and chemical environment on an enzyme determining which substrate(s) will bind?
What is the unique shape and chemical environment on an enzyme determining which substrate(s) will bind?
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What are metal ions or organic/metallo-organic molecules that act as helpers for some enzymes to function properly?
What are metal ions or organic/metallo-organic molecules that act as helpers for some enzymes to function properly?
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What type of enzymatic reaction releases energy?
What type of enzymatic reaction releases energy?
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What type of enzymatic reaction involves the formation of bonds between molecules?
What type of enzymatic reaction involves the formation of bonds between molecules?
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What do enzymes do in metabolic/biochemical reactions?
What do enzymes do in metabolic/biochemical reactions?
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Which model of enzyme action is considered the simplistic model?
Which model of enzyme action is considered the simplistic model?
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What happens to the reaction rate with further increase in enzyme concentration?
What happens to the reaction rate with further increase in enzyme concentration?
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What is the effect of substrate concentration on the reaction rate?
What is the effect of substrate concentration on the reaction rate?
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What effect does an increase in temperature have on the reaction rate?
What effect does an increase in temperature have on the reaction rate?
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Which factor can lead to enzyme denaturation?
Which factor can lead to enzyme denaturation?
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What is the governing factor that determines binding specificity between enzymes and substrates?
What is the governing factor that determines binding specificity between enzymes and substrates?
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At what point does enzyme concentration start affecting the reaction rate?
At what point does enzyme concentration start affecting the reaction rate?
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What happens to enzyme molecules when temperature increases beyond the optimum?
What happens to enzyme molecules when temperature increases beyond the optimum?
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What does an increase in salinity do to enzyme function?
What does an increase in salinity do to enzyme function?
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What does an increase in substrate concentration lead to?
What does an increase in substrate concentration lead to?
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Which of the following best describes the action of a drug on the body?
Which of the following best describes the action of a drug on the body?
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What is the term used to define and distinguish between an agonist, a partial agonist, and an antagonist?
What is the term used to define and distinguish between an agonist, a partial agonist, and an antagonist?
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In pharmacology, what does drug-receptor binding translate into?
In pharmacology, what does drug-receptor binding translate into?
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What is the primary effect of taking aspirin for a headache, as mentioned in the text?
What is the primary effect of taking aspirin for a headache, as mentioned in the text?
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What do drugs act on to produce their effects in the human body?
What do drugs act on to produce their effects in the human body?
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What are the two processes initiated by drug taking on the human body, as mentioned in the text?
What are the two processes initiated by drug taking on the human body, as mentioned in the text?
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What is the study of drug effects known as?
What is the study of drug effects known as?
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How do most drugs interact with biological systems?
How do most drugs interact with biological systems?
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What kind of entities are drug receptors?
What kind of entities are drug receptors?
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What principle governs the reversible drug-receptor interaction?
What principle governs the reversible drug-receptor interaction?
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What theory assumes that drug effect is proportional to the fraction of receptors occupied?
What theory assumes that drug effect is proportional to the fraction of receptors occupied?
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Which type of drug concentration-effect curve relates drug effect to the fraction of receptors occupied?
Which type of drug concentration-effect curve relates drug effect to the fraction of receptors occupied?
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What is the function of equilibrium dissociation constant ($K_d$) in drug-receptor interactions?
What is the function of equilibrium dissociation constant ($K_d$) in drug-receptor interactions?
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When does maximum drug effect occur according to the Receptor Occupancy Theory?
When does maximum drug effect occur according to the Receptor Occupancy Theory?
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'Lock and Key' relationship in drug-receptor interaction implies:
'Lock and Key' relationship in drug-receptor interaction implies:
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What happens when a drug mimics a natural, endogenous chemical messenger and produces the same effect?
What happens when a drug mimics a natural, endogenous chemical messenger and produces the same effect?
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What type of drug prevents the natural chemical messenger from binding to the receptor and produces no effect?
What type of drug prevents the natural chemical messenger from binding to the receptor and produces no effect?
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When a drug binds to a site near the binding site for a natural chemical messenger and influences its binding, what type of drug is it considered to be?
When a drug binds to a site near the binding site for a natural chemical messenger and influences its binding, what type of drug is it considered to be?
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What type of drug binds to the site normally occupied by a natural chemical messenger and produces an opposite effect?
What type of drug binds to the site normally occupied by a natural chemical messenger and produces an opposite effect?
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Which type of drug concentration-effect curve relates drug effect to the fraction of receptors occupied?
Which type of drug concentration-effect curve relates drug effect to the fraction of receptors occupied?
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What does it mean when a drug is classified as a negative allosteric modulator?
What does it mean when a drug is classified as a negative allosteric modulator?
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In drug-receptor interactions, what is the term used to define and distinguish between an agonist, a partial agonist, and an antagonist?
In drug-receptor interactions, what is the term used to define and distinguish between an agonist, a partial agonist, and an antagonist?
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'Lock and Key' relationship in drug-receptor interaction implies:
'Lock and Key' relationship in drug-receptor interaction implies:
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What theory assumes that drug effect is proportional to the fraction of receptors occupied?
What theory assumes that drug effect is proportional to the fraction of receptors occupied?
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What term is used to describe the measure of the ease with which a drug binds to its receptor?
What term is used to describe the measure of the ease with which a drug binds to its receptor?
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What term refers to the measure of the ability of the drug-receptor complex to couple or transduce the drug binding into a biological response?
What term refers to the measure of the ability of the drug-receptor complex to couple or transduce the drug binding into a biological response?
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Which type of drug binds to its receptor, activates the receptor, and elicits a biological response?
Which type of drug binds to its receptor, activates the receptor, and elicits a biological response?
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What type of drug binds to its receptor and activates the receptor, but can only elicit less than the maximum possible response?
What type of drug binds to its receptor and activates the receptor, but can only elicit less than the maximum possible response?
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What is the term for a drug that binds to its receptor but fails to activate the receptor, and so fails to elicit a response?
What is the term for a drug that binds to its receptor but fails to activate the receptor, and so fails to elicit a response?
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What concept refers to exceptions to the 'receptor occupancy theory' where full agonists may elicit maximum response without full receptor occupancy?
What concept refers to exceptions to the 'receptor occupancy theory' where full agonists may elicit maximum response without full receptor occupancy?
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Which characteristic of the graded dose-response curve reflects the magnitude of change in response per unit change in dose?
Which characteristic of the graded dose-response curve reflects the magnitude of change in response per unit change in dose?
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'Biological variability' in drug response can be influenced by all of the following EXCEPT:
'Biological variability' in drug response can be influenced by all of the following EXCEPT:
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'Potency' in drug interactions can be experimentally expressed as:
'Potency' in drug interactions can be experimentally expressed as:
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'Maximal efficacy' of a drug is reflected as a plateau in which characteristic curve?
'Maximal efficacy' of a drug is reflected as a plateau in which characteristic curve?
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What does 'Log Drug Concentration' reflect in drug interactions?
What does 'Log Drug Concentration' reflect in drug interactions?
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What type of entities are drug receptors?
What type of entities are drug receptors?
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What type of interaction occurs when one drug diminishes or abolishes the effect of another drug?
What type of interaction occurs when one drug diminishes or abolishes the effect of another drug?
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Which type of antagonism involves the antagonist drug binding irreversibly to the receptor, rendering a fraction of receptors permanently unavailable for agonist drug binding?
Which type of antagonism involves the antagonist drug binding irreversibly to the receptor, rendering a fraction of receptors permanently unavailable for agonist drug binding?
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In which type of drug-drug interaction do both drugs compete for the same receptor binding site, reducing the chances of agonist binding?
In which type of drug-drug interaction do both drugs compete for the same receptor binding site, reducing the chances of agonist binding?
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What concept refers to the combined effect of two drugs equaling the algebraic sum of their individual effects?
What concept refers to the combined effect of two drugs equaling the algebraic sum of their individual effects?
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Which type of antagonism cannot be overcome by increasing the concentration of the agonist drug?
Which type of antagonism cannot be overcome by increasing the concentration of the agonist drug?
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What type of interaction involves two opposing agonist effects in a single biological system, cancelling out each other's effects?
What type of interaction involves two opposing agonist effects in a single biological system, cancelling out each other's effects?
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Which concept refers to the combined effect of two drugs being greater than the algebraic sum of their individual effects?
Which concept refers to the combined effect of two drugs being greater than the algebraic sum of their individual effects?
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What type of antagonist interaction occurs when the antagonist drug does not compete with the agonist drug for the same receptor binding site?
What type of antagonist interaction occurs when the antagonist drug does not compete with the agonist drug for the same receptor binding site?
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Which type of interaction involves one drug acting to reduce the effective concentration of another drug at its site of action through mechanisms such as reduced absorption or increased metabolic degradation?
Which type of interaction involves one drug acting to reduce the effective concentration of another drug at its site of action through mechanisms such as reduced absorption or increased metabolic degradation?
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Which type of interaction involves a direct interaction between antagonist and agonist drugs, rendering the active drug inactive or unavailable to interact with its target receptors?
Which type of interaction involves a direct interaction between antagonist and agonist drugs, rendering the active drug inactive or unavailable to interact with its target receptors?
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Which term refers to the measure of the ability of the drug-receptor complex to couple or transduce the drug binding into a biological response?
Which term refers to the measure of the ability of the drug-receptor complex to couple or transduce the drug binding into a biological response?
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What type of enzymatic reaction involves the breaking of bonds between molecules?
What type of enzymatic reaction involves the breaking of bonds between molecules?
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Which type of drug binds to its receptor and activates the receptor, but can only elicit less than the maximum possible response?
Which type of drug binds to its receptor and activates the receptor, but can only elicit less than the maximum possible response?
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What is the term for a drug that binds to its receptor but fails to activate the receptor, and so fails to elicit a response?
What is the term for a drug that binds to its receptor but fails to activate the receptor, and so fails to elicit a response?
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What happens to enzyme molecules when temperature increases beyond the optimum?
What happens to enzyme molecules when temperature increases beyond the optimum?
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'Lock and Key' relationship in drug-receptor interaction implies:
'Lock and Key' relationship in drug-receptor interaction implies:
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What concept refers to the combined effect of two drugs equaling the algebraic sum of their individual effects?
What concept refers to the combined effect of two drugs equaling the algebraic sum of their individual effects?
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Which of the following is NOT a common property of enzymes?
Which of the following is NOT a common property of enzymes?
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What are metal ions or organic/metallo-organic molecules that act as helpers for some enzymes to function properly?
What are metal ions or organic/metallo-organic molecules that act as helpers for some enzymes to function properly?
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What does 'Log Drug Concentration' reflect in drug interactions?
What does 'Log Drug Concentration' reflect in drug interactions?
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Which term refers to the 'uncoupling' of receptors from their effector systems?
Which term refers to the 'uncoupling' of receptors from their effector systems?
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What type of drug-induced tolerance results in the depletion of endogenous stores of mediators?
What type of drug-induced tolerance results in the depletion of endogenous stores of mediators?
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What term refers to the compensatory or homeostatic mechanisms that blunt or cancel the drug’s effects?
What term refers to the compensatory or homeostatic mechanisms that blunt or cancel the drug’s effects?
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What is the measure of the margin of safety of a drug, indicating the benefit to risk ratio of the drug?
What is the measure of the margin of safety of a drug, indicating the benefit to risk ratio of the drug?
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Which type of drug action refers to the degree to which a drug acts upon a given site relative to all possible sites of interaction?
Which type of drug action refers to the degree to which a drug acts upon a given site relative to all possible sites of interaction?
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What are the effects split into when considering desirable and undesirable effects of a drug?
What are the effects split into when considering desirable and undesirable effects of a drug?
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What determines the ease with which a drug binds to its receptor and reflects binding specificity between enzymes and substrates?
What determines the ease with which a drug binds to its receptor and reflects binding specificity between enzymes and substrates?
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'Maximal efficacy' of a drug is reflected as a plateau in which characteristic curve?
'Maximal efficacy' of a drug is reflected as a plateau in which characteristic curve?
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'Lock and Key' relationship in drug-receptor interaction implies:
'Lock and Key' relationship in drug-receptor interaction implies:
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How is selective permeability defined in the context of molecule movement across membranes?
How is selective permeability defined in the context of molecule movement across membranes?
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What is the term used to describe the liquid doing the dissolving in a solution?
What is the term used to describe the liquid doing the dissolving in a solution?
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How is interstitial fluid defined in the context of body fluid pools?
How is interstitial fluid defined in the context of body fluid pools?
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What term is used to describe the difference in concentration between two areas of a solution?
What term is used to describe the difference in concentration between two areas of a solution?
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In the context of transport processes into and out of cells, what does passive process refer to?
In the context of transport processes into and out of cells, what does passive process refer to?
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What type of transport process involves the use of vesicles for substance transport?
What type of transport process involves the use of vesicles for substance transport?
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What is the primary function of cerebrospinal fluid in the body?
What is the primary function of cerebrospinal fluid in the body?
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Which type of molecules act as helpers for some enzymes to function properly?
Which type of molecules act as helpers for some enzymes to function properly?
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What does concentration gradient refer to in the context of solutions?
What does concentration gradient refer to in the context of solutions?
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What is the main role of extracellular fluid (ECF) within the body?
What is the main role of extracellular fluid (ECF) within the body?
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Which process involves moving molecules against their concentration gradient using energy?
Which process involves moving molecules against their concentration gradient using energy?
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What is the major function of Na+/K+-ATPase?
What is the major function of Na+/K+-ATPase?
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Which type of transport uses co-transporters and counter-transporters to move molecules in the same or opposite directions respectively?
Which type of transport uses co-transporters and counter-transporters to move molecules in the same or opposite directions respectively?
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What is the process of taking in extracellular materials by forming vesicles from the plasma membrane?
What is the process of taking in extracellular materials by forming vesicles from the plasma membrane?
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What is the most common form of endocytosis, involving the uptake of materials dissolved in water?
What is the most common form of endocytosis, involving the uptake of materials dissolved in water?
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What is the selective process involving recognition and binding of particles to receptors in the plasma membrane?
What is the selective process involving recognition and binding of particles to receptors in the plasma membrane?
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Which transport process involves the release of materials from the cell via vesicles?
Which transport process involves the release of materials from the cell via vesicles?
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Which of these enzymes is involved in primary active transport?
Which of these enzymes is involved in primary active transport?
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What type of transport uses ATP directly for moving molecules against their concentration gradient?
What type of transport uses ATP directly for moving molecules against their concentration gradient?
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Which process involves creating a membrane potential by pumping Na+ out and K+ in?
Which process involves creating a membrane potential by pumping Na+ out and K+ in?
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Which form of endocytosis involves materials dissolved in water?
Which form of endocytosis involves materials dissolved in water?
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What is the selective process that involves recognition and binding of particles to receptors in the plasma membrane?
What is the selective process that involves recognition and binding of particles to receptors in the plasma membrane?
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What is the process used to successively move a substance into, across, and out of a cell?
What is the process used to successively move a substance into, across, and out of a cell?
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In which cells does transcytosis most often occur?
In which cells does transcytosis most often occur?
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During pregnancy, how do some antibodies cross the placenta into the fetal circulation?
During pregnancy, how do some antibodies cross the placenta into the fetal circulation?
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Which textbook is NOT listed as a recommended reference for further reading?
Which textbook is NOT listed as a recommended reference for further reading?
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What type of drug prevents the natural chemical messenger from binding to the receptor and produces no effect?
What type of drug prevents the natural chemical messenger from binding to the receptor and produces no effect?
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Which enzymatic reaction releases energy?
Which enzymatic reaction releases energy?
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In drug-receptor interactions, what term refers to the measure of the ability of the drug-receptor complex to couple or transduce the drug binding into a biological response?
In drug-receptor interactions, what term refers to the measure of the ability of the drug-receptor complex to couple or transduce the drug binding into a biological response?
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What principle governs the reversible drug-receptor interaction?
What principle governs the reversible drug-receptor interaction?
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'Lock and Key' relationship in drug-receptor interaction implies:
'Lock and Key' relationship in drug-receptor interaction implies:
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'Biological variability' in drug response can be influenced by all of the following EXCEPT:
'Biological variability' in drug response can be influenced by all of the following EXCEPT:
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Which type of passive transport specifically allows the movement of polar or charged substances across the plasma membrane?
Which type of passive transport specifically allows the movement of polar or charged substances across the plasma membrane?
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What property of a solution determines its ability to change the shape or tone of cells through altering their internal water volume?
What property of a solution determines its ability to change the shape or tone of cells through altering their internal water volume?
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What is the measure of the total concentration of solute particles in a solution, expressed in units of osmoles per liter?
What is the measure of the total concentration of solute particles in a solution, expressed in units of osmoles per liter?
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Which method of moving substances across the plasma membrane does not require the use of energy?
Which method of moving substances across the plasma membrane does not require the use of energy?
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What type of diffusion allows non-polar substances to move across the plasma membrane in response to their concentration gradient?
What type of diffusion allows non-polar substances to move across the plasma membrane in response to their concentration gradient?
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What influences the movement of ions and other substances by creating an electrical gradient across the plasma membrane?
What influences the movement of ions and other substances by creating an electrical gradient across the plasma membrane?
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Which process allows water to move across a semi-permeable membrane in response to a concentration gradient or pressure difference?
Which process allows water to move across a semi-permeable membrane in response to a concentration gradient or pressure difference?
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What measure drives the active transport of substances against their concentration gradient?
What measure drives the active transport of substances against their concentration gradient?
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What method specifically allows the passive movement of specific ions through the membrane in a gated manner?
What method specifically allows the passive movement of specific ions through the membrane in a gated manner?
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Which process occurs in response to a concentration gradient or pressure difference?
Which process occurs in response to a concentration gradient or pressure difference?
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What measure is expressed in units of osmoles per liter?
What measure is expressed in units of osmoles per liter?
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Which property determines the ability of a solution to regulate the water balance and shape of cells by altering their internal water volume?
Which property determines the ability of a solution to regulate the water balance and shape of cells by altering their internal water volume?
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According to the cell theory, what is the smallest unit that performs all vital physiological functions?
According to the cell theory, what is the smallest unit that performs all vital physiological functions?
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What is the estimated number of cells in the human body according to the provided information?
What is the estimated number of cells in the human body according to the provided information?
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Which part of the body is made up of cells, according to the information provided?
Which part of the body is made up of cells, according to the information provided?
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What is the primary function of plasma membrane in a cell?
What is the primary function of plasma membrane in a cell?
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Which theory assumes that drug effect is proportional to the fraction of receptors occupied?
Which theory assumes that drug effect is proportional to the fraction of receptors occupied?
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What is the main difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
What is the main difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
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What is the primary function of mitochondria?
What is the primary function of mitochondria?
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What is the function of the nucleolus within the nucleus?
What is the function of the nucleolus within the nucleus?
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Where is DNA found in association with proteins, forming a fine network of threads known as chromatin?
Where is DNA found in association with proteins, forming a fine network of threads known as chromatin?
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In which type of cells are mitochondria abundant?
In which type of cells are mitochondria abundant?
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What is the structure of mitochondria?
What is the structure of mitochondria?
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What are the main components of the nucleus?
What are the main components of the nucleus?
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Which organelle contains some DNA and ribosomes?
Which organelle contains some DNA and ribosomes?
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Where does the major site of O2 utilization and CO2 formation occur?
Where does the major site of O2 utilization and CO2 formation occur?
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What organelle is responsible for digesting unneeded or faulty proteins?
What organelle is responsible for digesting unneeded or faulty proteins?
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Where is the genetic material (DNA) stored in genes arranged in chromosomes?
Where is the genetic material (DNA) stored in genes arranged in chromosomes?
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What type of stem cells can differentiate into nearly all cells?
What type of stem cells can differentiate into nearly all cells?
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Which type of cells are derived from a single, totipotent cell during embryonic development?
Which type of cells are derived from a single, totipotent cell during embryonic development?
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What type of cells act as a repair system for the body in adults?
What type of cells act as a repair system for the body in adults?
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What distinguishes Gram-positive bacteria from Gram-negative bacteria?
What distinguishes Gram-positive bacteria from Gram-negative bacteria?
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Which type of bacterial cell stains purple when subjected to Gram's stain?
Which type of bacterial cell stains purple when subjected to Gram's stain?
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Which type of cells can construct a complete organism?
Which type of cells can construct a complete organism?
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Which type of cell does not have a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles?
Which type of cell does not have a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles?
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What is the process involving the formation of blood cells called?
What is the process involving the formation of blood cells called?
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S. aureus is an example of which type of bacterium based on its response to Gram's stain?
S. aureus is an example of which type of bacterium based on its response to Gram's stain?
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Which type of stem cells have the ability to differentiate into a specific range of cell types?
Which type of stem cells have the ability to differentiate into a specific range of cell types?
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What distinguishes prokaryotic cells from eukaryotic cells?
What distinguishes prokaryotic cells from eukaryotic cells?
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What is the main role of stem cells in adults?
What is the main role of stem cells in adults?
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Which organelle is responsible for the modification of proteins, glycoproteins, and lipoproteins, and exports them by exocytosis or stores them in lysosomes?
Which organelle is responsible for the modification of proteins, glycoproteins, and lipoproteins, and exports them by exocytosis or stores them in lysosomes?
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What is the function of proteasomes within the cell?
What is the function of proteasomes within the cell?
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What is the primary function of centrosomes within the cell?
What is the primary function of centrosomes within the cell?
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Which organelle is involved in protein synthesis, lipid synthesis, and intracellular transport?
Which organelle is involved in protein synthesis, lipid synthesis, and intracellular transport?
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Where are ribosomes found within a cell?
Where are ribosomes found within a cell?
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What cellular structure facilitates motion and contains a central pair of microtubules?
What cellular structure facilitates motion and contains a central pair of microtubules?
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What are desmosomes primarily composed of?
What are desmosomes primarily composed of?
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What is the unique characteristic of tight junctions between adjacent cells?
What is the unique characteristic of tight junctions between adjacent cells?
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Which organelle is responsible for the final processes of digestion and the destruction of worn-out cell parts in autophagy and autolysis?
Which organelle is responsible for the final processes of digestion and the destruction of worn-out cell parts in autophagy and autolysis?
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What type of structure are cilia and flagella?
What type of structure are cilia and flagella?
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What do cadherins do at the cellular level?
What do cadherins do at the cellular level?
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Which type of cell lacks a membrane-bound nucleus and has a simpler structure?
Which type of cell lacks a membrane-bound nucleus and has a simpler structure?
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What is the main function of the plasma membrane?
What is the main function of the plasma membrane?
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Which component interacts with phospholipids and glycolipids, forming organized clusters that aid in vesicle formation?
Which component interacts with phospholipids and glycolipids, forming organized clusters that aid in vesicle formation?
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Where are integral membrane proteins located in relation to the membrane?
Where are integral membrane proteins located in relation to the membrane?
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Which type of cellular junction is characterized by dense plaques along the cytoplasmic surface, serving as protein anchoring points for cadherins?
Which type of cellular junction is characterized by dense plaques along the cytoplasmic surface, serving as protein anchoring points for cadherins?
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What do glycolipids have that causes them to be asymmetrically distributed in the membrane?
What do glycolipids have that causes them to be asymmetrically distributed in the membrane?
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What is the role of the cytoskeleton in Eukaryotic cells?
What is the role of the cytoskeleton in Eukaryotic cells?
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How does temperature affect membrane fluidity?
How does temperature affect membrane fluidity?
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What is the function of the glycocalyx?
What is the function of the glycocalyx?
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What is the distinguishing feature of peripheral membrane proteins?
What is the distinguishing feature of peripheral membrane proteins?
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What is the main structural difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells?
What is the main structural difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells?
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What is the defining characteristic of Eukaryotic cells?
What is the defining characteristic of Eukaryotic cells?
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Where does pyruvate oxidation take place in the cell?
Where does pyruvate oxidation take place in the cell?
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What is the net yield of NADH molecules in glycolysis?
What is the net yield of NADH molecules in glycolysis?
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Where are all the remaining ATPs produced?
Where are all the remaining ATPs produced?
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What is the total ATP yield from the complete breakdown of glucose?
What is the total ATP yield from the complete breakdown of glucose?
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Which process provides the majority of ATP in cellular respiration?
Which process provides the majority of ATP in cellular respiration?
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What is the location of the Krebs cycle within the cell?
What is the location of the Krebs cycle within the cell?
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During cellular respiration, what is the role of electron carriers such as NAD+ and FAD?
During cellular respiration, what is the role of electron carriers such as NAD+ and FAD?
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What is the primary source of energy for the brain and red blood cells?
What is the primary source of energy for the brain and red blood cells?
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What is the final electron acceptor in cellular respiration?
What is the final electron acceptor in cellular respiration?
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What is the universal currency of free energy in biological systems?
What is the universal currency of free energy in biological systems?
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What process uses the high energy electrons from NADH and FADH2 to produce ATP?
What process uses the high energy electrons from NADH and FADH2 to produce ATP?
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What is the main function of glycogen and starch in the body?
What is the main function of glycogen and starch in the body?
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What happens to ATP during hydrolysis?
What happens to ATP during hydrolysis?
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What role do electrons play in cellular respiration?
What role do electrons play in cellular respiration?
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What is the main product of the catabolism of glucose in cellular respiration?
What is the main product of the catabolism of glucose in cellular respiration?
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What is the primary function of the electron transport chain (ETC) during cellular respiration?
What is the primary function of the electron transport chain (ETC) during cellular respiration?
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What is the nature of the redox reaction involving glucose and oxygen during cellular respiration?
What is the nature of the redox reaction involving glucose and oxygen during cellular respiration?
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What are the main products of glucose breakdown during cellular respiration?
What are the main products of glucose breakdown during cellular respiration?
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Which enzyme catalyzes the conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to pyruvate during glycolysis?
Which enzyme catalyzes the conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to pyruvate during glycolysis?
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In the Cori cycle, what is lactate converted back into in the liver?
In the Cori cycle, what is lactate converted back into in the liver?
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Which enzyme catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA in the presence of oxygen?
Which enzyme catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA in the presence of oxygen?
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During the citric acid cycle, what is generated from the breakdown of acetyl CoA?
During the citric acid cycle, what is generated from the breakdown of acetyl CoA?
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What are the final products of glycolysis?
What are the final products of glycolysis?
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What is the fate of lactose in lactose intolerant individuals?
What is the fate of lactose in lactose intolerant individuals?
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In the absence of oxygen, what does pyruvate get converted into?
In the absence of oxygen, what does pyruvate get converted into?
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What is the main site of the citric acid cycle in a cell?
What is the main site of the citric acid cycle in a cell?
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What process occurs in the liver to convert pyruvate to glucose in the absence of glucose?
What process occurs in the liver to convert pyruvate to glucose in the absence of glucose?
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What are the initial products of the preparatory phase of glycolysis?
What are the initial products of the preparatory phase of glycolysis?
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What serves as feeders for glycolysis by contributing to overall ATP generation?
What serves as feeders for glycolysis by contributing to overall ATP generation?
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What is the name of the process by which lactate produced during anaerobic glycolysis is transported to the liver and converted back to glucose?
What is the name of the process by which lactate produced during anaerobic glycolysis is transported to the liver and converted back to glucose?
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Which of the following is NOT a potential impact of metabolism related diseases?
Which of the following is NOT a potential impact of metabolism related diseases?
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What is the primary function of the gastrointestinal system as mentioned in the context?
What is the primary function of the gastrointestinal system as mentioned in the context?
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In the context of cellular respiration, what role does glucose play?
In the context of cellular respiration, what role does glucose play?
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What is the main function of digestive enzymes mentioned in the text?
What is the main function of digestive enzymes mentioned in the text?
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What do humans obtain from their diet as highlighted in the text?
What do humans obtain from their diet as highlighted in the text?
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What is the significance of understanding metabolism as mentioned in the text?
What is the significance of understanding metabolism as mentioned in the text?
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Which process involves converting basic components into required biomolecules?
Which process involves converting basic components into required biomolecules?
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What is the primary role of cellular respiration?
What is the primary role of cellular respiration?
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'Lock and Key' relationship is commonly associated with which biological interaction according to the text?
'Lock and Key' relationship is commonly associated with which biological interaction according to the text?
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Where in the cell does pyruvate oxidation occur during cellular respiration?
Where in the cell does pyruvate oxidation occur during cellular respiration?
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What is the net yield of NADH molecules from the Krebs cycle during cellular respiration?
What is the net yield of NADH molecules from the Krebs cycle during cellular respiration?
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During cellular respiration, where are the remaining ATPs produced after the Krebs cycle?
During cellular respiration, where are the remaining ATPs produced after the Krebs cycle?
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How many ATPs are produced from the complete breakdown of glucose during cellular respiration?
How many ATPs are produced from the complete breakdown of glucose during cellular respiration?
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What is the total ATP yield from one molecule of glucose in the context of glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and electron transfer system?
What is the total ATP yield from one molecule of glucose in the context of glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and electron transfer system?
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In the context of cellular respiration, where does glycolysis take place?
In the context of cellular respiration, where does glycolysis take place?
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During cellular respiration, what is the primary role of electron carriers such as NAD+ and FAD?
During cellular respiration, what is the primary role of electron carriers such as NAD+ and FAD?
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What is the final electron acceptor in cellular respiration?
What is the final electron acceptor in cellular respiration?
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Which of the following accurately describes ATP in biological systems?
Which of the following accurately describes ATP in biological systems?
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What is the primary source of energy for the brain and red blood cells?
What is the primary source of energy for the brain and red blood cells?
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What is the main role of glucose in cellular respiration?
What is the main role of glucose in cellular respiration?
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What process occurs during the breakdown of glucose to make ATP?
What process occurs during the breakdown of glucose to make ATP?
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Which component uses the high energy electrons from NADH and FADH2 to produce ATP?
Which component uses the high energy electrons from NADH and FADH2 to produce ATP?
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What is the primary function of ATP in biological systems?
What is the primary function of ATP in biological systems?
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What is the primary role of cellular respiration?
What is the primary role of cellular respiration?
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What is the key role played by electrons in cellular respiration?
What is the key role played by electrons in cellular respiration?
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What role do electron carriers like NAD+ and FAD play in cellular respiration?
What role do electron carriers like NAD+ and FAD play in cellular respiration?
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What is the primary function of plasma membrane in a cell?
What is the primary function of plasma membrane in a cell?
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Where does the major site of O2 utilization and CO2 formation occur?
Where does the major site of O2 utilization and CO2 formation occur?
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What are the initial products of the preparatory phase of glycolysis?
What are the initial products of the preparatory phase of glycolysis?
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What concept refers to exceptions to the 'receptor occupancy theory' where full agonists may elicit maximum response without full receptor occupancy?
What concept refers to exceptions to the 'receptor occupancy theory' where full agonists may elicit maximum response without full receptor occupancy?
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What enzyme catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA in the presence of oxygen?
What enzyme catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA in the presence of oxygen?
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What kind of entities are drug receptors?
What kind of entities are drug receptors?
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'Biological variability' in drug response can be influenced by all of the following EXCEPT:
'Biological variability' in drug response can be influenced by all of the following EXCEPT:
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'Lock and Key' relationship in drug-receptor interaction implies:
'Lock and Key' relationship in drug-receptor interaction implies:
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'Log Drug Concentration' reflects in drug interactions?
'Log Drug Concentration' reflects in drug interactions?
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What happens to pyruvate in the presence of oxygen?
What happens to pyruvate in the presence of oxygen?
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What is the function of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in cellular respiration?
What is the function of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in cellular respiration?
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What are the final products of glycolysis?
What are the final products of glycolysis?
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What is the role of the Cori cycle?
What is the role of the Cori cycle?
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Where does the citric acid cycle occur?
Where does the citric acid cycle occur?
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What is the net gain of ATP molecules from one molecule of glucose entering glycolysis?
What is the net gain of ATP molecules from one molecule of glucose entering glycolysis?
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What happens to lactose in lactose intolerant individuals?
What happens to lactose in lactose intolerant individuals?
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What is the function of glycogen and starch in cellular respiration?
What is the function of glycogen and starch in cellular respiration?
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What occurs in the preparatory phase of glycolysis?
What occurs in the preparatory phase of glycolysis?
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What is the fate of undigested lactose in lactose intolerant individuals?
What is the fate of undigested lactose in lactose intolerant individuals?
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What does the Cori cycle describe?
What does the Cori cycle describe?
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Study Notes
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Enzymes are catalysts that help speed up biochemical reactions in the body.
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They are named based on their substrate or catalytic action, with the suffix "-ase" added.
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Classification of enzymes is based on the type of reaction they catalyze, including oxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases, lyases, isomerases, and ligases.
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Enzymes are proteins with a globular shape and a complex 3-D structure.
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They have an active site, a unique shape and chemical environment that determines which substrate(s) will bind.
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Some enzymes require cofactors, non-protein chemical components that act as helpers, to function properly.
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Cofactors can be metal ions or organic/metallo-organic molecules called cofactors, which are either tightly or loosely bound to the enzyme.
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Enzymes are essential for life as they catalyze cellular metabolic reactions, which include anabolism (biosynthesis) and catabolism (degradation).
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Anabolism involves the formation of bonds between molecules, while catabolism involves the breaking of bonds between molecules.
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Enzymes lower the activation energy required for metabolic reactions to proceed and enable them to occur at a faster rate.
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Catabolic reactions release energy, while anabolic reactions consume energy.
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Enzymes are crucial for the conversion of food into energy and the synthesis of complex molecules like proteins and carbohydrates.
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Enzymes work by lowering the energy barrier to reaction, allowing substrates to reach the transition state, where existing bonds can be broken and new ones formed.
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Pharmacology is the study of the interaction between drugs and the living body.
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It consists of three main branches: Pharmacodynamics (study of drug effects), Pharmacokinetics (study of how the body deals with drugs), and Pharmacotherapeutics (study of drug use in disease treatment).
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Drugs can interact with biological systems in two ways: non-specifically, through physical or chemical means, or specifically, by binding to specific macromolecular targets called 'receptors'.
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Most drugs act specifically and bind to receptors, which are protein or glycoprotein entities, located on the cell membrane or inside the cell.
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Drug receptors are responsible for initiating the chain of biochemical events leading to the drug's observed biological effects.
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Drug-receptor interactions are based on the 'lock and key' relationship, where the drug's molecular structure and shape are similar to those of the natural chemical messengers, and there is a complementary fit between the drug molecule and the binding site on the receptor.
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The drug-receptor interaction is reversible and governed by the Law of Mass Action.
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The fraction of receptors occupied by the drug is a function of drug concentration and the equilibrium dissociation constant (KD) for the drug-receptor complex.
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The 'Receptor Occupancy Theory' assumes that drug effect is proportional to the fraction of receptors occupied, and maximum drug effect occurs when all receptors in the system are occupied by the drug.
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Drug concentration and drug effect can be related to the fraction of receptors occupied using various drug concentration-effect curves, such as the Emax drug concentration curve and the log drug concentration-effect curve.
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Drug-Drug Interactions is a type of interaction between two drugs that affects each other's actions.
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There are different types of drug-drug interactions, including drug antagonism, synergism/potentiation, and chemical, pharmacokinetic, and physiological or functional antagonism.
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Drug antagonism is an interaction where one drug diminishes or abolishes the effect of another drug.
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Competitive antagonism occurs when both drugs compete for the same receptor binding site, with the antagonist drug reducing the chances of agonist binding.
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Reversible competitive antagonism allows both drugs to bind to the receptor, with the fraction of receptors occupied depending on their relative receptor affinities and concentrations. This type of antagonism can be overcome by increasing the concentration of the agonist drug.
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Irreversible competitive antagonism involves the antagonist drug binding irreversibly to the receptor, with a fraction of receptors rendered permanently unavailable for agonist drug binding. This type of antagonism cannot be overcome by increasing the concentration of the agonist drug.
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Non-competitive antagonism occurs when the antagonist drug does not compete with the agonist drug for the same receptor binding site, but may bind to a different site on the receptor or interfere with response coupling, and cannot be overcome by increasing the concentration of the agonist drug.
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Chemical antagonism results from a direct interaction between the antagonist and agonist drugs, with the antagonist drug binding to or combining with the active drug in solution, rendering it inactive or unavailable to interact with its target receptors.
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Pharmacokinetic antagonism occurs when the antagonist drug acts to reduce the effective concentration of the active drug at its site of action, through mechanisms such as reduced absorption, increased metabolic degradation, or increased renal excretion.
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Physiological or functional antagonism involves the interaction of two opposing agonist effects in a single biological system, cancelling out each other's effects and typically occurring in the context of opposing drugs eliciting opposing responses by acting on different receptors.
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Additivity is a concept that refers to the combined effect of two drugs equaling the algebraic sum of their individual effects.
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Synergism or potentiation is a concept where the combined effect of two drugs is greater than the algebraic sum of their individual effects. The synergist may act to increase the concentration of the other drug at its receptor sites.
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The GABAA receptor is involved in synergism/potentiation by benzodiazepines.
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Potentiation by benzodiazepines refers to the increased responsiveness of the other drug's receptor-effector protein.
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Concentration gradient: difference in concentration of a chemical substances between two regions, which creates an electrical gradient across the plasma membrane.
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Electrical gradient/membrane potential: the charge difference across the plasma membrane that helps move substances across it.
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Passive transport: a method of moving substances across the plasma membrane without the use of energy.
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Types of passive transport: simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion.
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Simple diffusion: movement of substances across the membrane due to concentration gradients or pressure differences, no energy required.
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Facilitated diffusion: movement of polar or charged substances across the membrane through specific carrier proteins.
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Ion channels: integral membrane proteins that allow the passage of specific inorganic ions and function as gates to control their movement.
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Osmosis: a type of diffusion of water through a semi-permeable membrane, regulated by aquaporins and other water channels.
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Osmolarity: a measure of the total concentration of solute particles in a solution.
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Tonicity: the ability of a solution to change the shape or tone of cells through altering their internal water volume.
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Membrane potential: the difference in electrical charge across the plasma membrane, which influences the movement of ions and other substances.
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Concentration gradient: the difference in concentration of a substance between two regions, which drives the movement of substances across the membrane.
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Simple diffusion: a method of passive transport for non-polar substances that move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
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Facilitated diffusion: a method of passive transport for polar and charged substances that move through carrier proteins in response to their concentration gradient.
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Ion channels: transmembrane proteins that mediate the movement of specific ions through the membrane in a gated manner.
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Osmosis: a process of water movement across a semi-permeable membrane in response to a concentration gradient or pressure difference.
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Osmolarity: a measure of the total concentration of solute particles in a solution, expressed in units of osmoles per liter.
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Tonicity: a property of a solution that determines its ability to alter the shape or volume of cells through the movement of water.
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Membrane potential: the electric potential difference across the plasma membrane that influences the movement of ions and other substances.
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Concentration gradient: the difference in concentration of a substance between two regions.
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Simple diffusion: a passive process that allows non-polar substances to move across the plasma membrane in response to their concentration gradient.
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Facilitated diffusion: a passive process that allows polar and charged substances to move across the plasma membrane through specific carrier proteins.
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Ion channels: integral membrane proteins that mediate the passive transport of specific ions through the membrane.
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Osmosis: movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane in response to a concentration gradient or pressure difference.
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Osmolarity: a measure of the total concentration of solute particles in a solution.
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Tonicity: the ability of a solution to regulate the water balance and shape of cells by altering their internal water volume.
-
Membrane potential: the electric potential difference across the plasma membrane that influences the movement of ions and other substances.
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Concentration gradient: the difference in concentration of a substance between two regions.
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Simple diffusion: a passive process that allows non-polar substances to move across the plasma membrane in response to their concentration gradient.
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Facilitated diffusion: a passive process that allows polar and charged substances to move across the plasma membrane with the help of carrier proteins.
-
Membrane potential: the electric potential difference across the plasma membrane, which influences the movement of ions and other charged particles.
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Osmosis: a type of diffusion that allows water to move across a semi-permeable membrane in response to a concentration gradient.
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Osmolarity: a measure of the total concentration of solute particles in a solution.
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Tonicity: the ability of a solution to change the shape of cells by altering their internal water balance.
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Membrane potential: the electric potential difference across the plasma membrane that drives the active transport of substances against their concentration gradient.
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Passive transport: a process that moves substances across the plasma membrane without the use of energy.
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Simple diffusion: a passive process that allows non-polar substances to move across the plasma membrane in response to their concentration gradient.
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Facilitated diffusion: a passive process that allows polar and charged substances to move across the plasma membrane with the help of carrier proteins.
-
Membrane potential: the electric potential difference across the plasma membrane that influences the movement of ions and other charged particles.
-
Osmosis: a process that allows water to move across a semi-permeable membrane in response to a concentration gradient or pressure difference.
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Osmolarity: a measure of the total concentration of solute particles in a solution.
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Tonicity: the ability of a solution to change the shape of cells by altering their internal water balance.
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Ion channels: integral membrane proteins that allow the passive movement of specific ions across the plasma membrane.
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Carrier proteins: transmembrane proteins that facilitate the movement of specific solutes across the plasma membrane against their concentration gradient.
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Membrane potential: the electric potential difference across the plasma membrane that influences the movement of ions and other charged particles.
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Osmosis: a process of diffusion of water through a semi-permeable membrane in response to a concentration gradient.
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Osmolarity: a measure of the total concentration of solute particles in a solution.
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Tonicity: a property of a solution that determines its ability to change the shape of cells through the movement of water.
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Simple diffusion: a passive process for the movement of non-polar substances across the plasma membrane in response to concentration gradients.
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Facilitated diffusion: a passive process for the movement of polar and charged substances across the plasma membrane with the help of carrier proteins.
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Ion channels: integral membrane proteins that mediate the passive movement of specific ions across the plasma membrane.
-
Osmosis: a type of diffusion that allows water to move across a semi-permeable membrane in response to a concentration gradient.
-
Osmolarity: a measure of the total concentration of solute particles in a solution.
-
Tonicity: a property of a solution that determines its ability to change the shape of cells through the movement of water.
-
Membrane potential: the electric potential difference across the plasma membrane that influences the movement of ions and other charged particles.
-
Passive transport: a method of moving substances across the plasma membrane without the use of energy.
-
Simple diffusion: a passive process for the movement of non-polar substances across the plasma membrane in response to concentration gradients.
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Facilitated diffusion: a passive process for the movement of polar and charged substances across the plasma membrane with the help of carrier proteins.
-
Osmosis: a process of passive water movement across a semi-permeable membrane in response to a concentration gradient.
-
Osmolarity: a measure of the total concentration of solute particles in a solution.
-
Tonicity: a property of a solution that determines its ability to change the shape of cells through the movement of water.
-
Membrane potential: the electric potential difference across the plasma membrane that influences the movement of ions and other charged particles.
-
Passive transport: a method of moving substances across the plasma membrane without the consumption of energy.
-
Simple diffusion: a process for the passive movement of non-polar substances across the plasma membrane in response to concentration gradients.
-
Facilitated diffusion: a process for the passive movement of polar and charged substances across the plasma membrane with the help of carrier proteins.
-
Osmosis: a process for the passive movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane in response to a concentration gradient.
-
Osmolarity: a measure of the total concentration of solute particles in a solution.
-
Tonicity: a property of a solution that determines its ability to change the shape of cells through the movement of water.
-
Membrane potential: the electric potential difference across the plasma membrane that influences the movement of ions and other charged particles.
-
Concentration gradient: the difference in concentration of a substance between two regions.
-
Simple diffusion: the passive process by which non-polar substances move across the plasma membrane in response to a concentration gradient.
-
Facilitated diffusion: the passive process by which polar and charged substances move across the plasma membrane with the help of carrier proteins.
-
Membrane potential: the electric potential difference across the plasma membrane that influences the movement of ions and other charged particles.
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Osmosis: the process
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The text is about the cellular structure of both Prokaryotic (bacteria) and Eukaryotic cells, including protozoa, plant, and animal cells.
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Prokaryotic cells lack a membrane-bound nucleus and have a simpler structure than Eukaryotic cells.
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Eukaryotic cells possess a membrane-bound nucleus and have a more complex structure, with organelles, endomembrane system, and a cytoskeleton for support and maintaining cellular structure.
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Protozoan cells are part of the Eukaryotic cell group.
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The three main parts of a cell are the plasma membrane, cytoplasm (cytosol and organelles), and the nucleus.
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The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer, consisting of phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates.
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Functions of the plasma membrane include acting as a barrier, controlling the entry of materials, receiving signals, and transmitting signals.
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Phospholipids are amphipathic, and cholesterol plays a role in maintaining membrane fluidity.
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Cholesterol interacts with phospholipids and glycolipids, forming organized clusters that aid in vesicle formation.
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Temperature affects the membrane fluidity, and cholesterol has distinct temperature-dependent effects.
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Glycolipids are asymmetrically distributed in the membrane, with the carbohydrate groups facing the extracellular fluid and the fatty acid tails being nonpolar.
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Integral membrane proteins are closely associated with the membrane lipids and cannot be extracted without disrupting the membrane.
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Peripheral membrane proteins are not amphipathic and are located at the membrane surface.
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Many membrane proteins are glycoproteins with carbohydrate groups that form the glycocalyx, which acts as a cellular signature.
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Cells can be physically joined by various types of junctions, including desmosomes, tight junctions, and gap junctions.
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Desmosomes are characterized by dense plaques along the cytoplasmic surface, which are protein anchoring points for cadherins.
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Glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration, which converts glucose into pyruvate. This process consists of 10 steps, each controlled by specific enzymes.
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The preparatory phase of glycolysis requires ATP to begin and produces two molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) from the initial two molecules of Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP).
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In the payoff phase, ATP and NADH are generated from the conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to pyruvate through substrate level phosphorylation.
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The final products of glycolysis are two molecules of pyruvate. The entire process occurs in the cytoplasm.
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Glycogen and starch serve as feeders for glycolysis. They are broken down and enter the preparatory stage of glycolysis, contributing to the overall ATP generation.
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Lactose intolerant individuals cannot convert lactose into glucose due to a lack or lower level of the enzyme lactase. As a result, the undigested lactose is fermented by gut bacteria, which leads to symptoms like gas, bloating, pain, and diarrhea.
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In the absence of oxygen, pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid, and the transferred electrons oxidize NADH back to NAD+. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). High levels of lactate can lead to muscle cramps, pain, and potentially life-threatening conditions.
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The Cori cycle (also known as the lactic acid cycle) describes the process by which lactate produced during anaerobic glycolysis is transported to the liver, where it is converted back to glucose. This process requires ATP, and the resulting glucose can be either used or stored as glycogen.
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The heart and brain must be continuously supplied with fuel and cannot be starved. In the absence of glucose, pyruvate can be converted to glucose through the process of gluconeogenesis, which occurs in the liver. This process will be covered more in diabetes lectures.
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In the presence of oxygen, pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA and enters the next stage of metabolism, the citric acid cycle, which occurs in the mitochondria. Pyruvate moves through the mitochondrial membrane to encounter the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH).
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The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or the tricarboxylic acid cycle, is the next stage of metabolism where acetyl CoA derived from pyruvate is further broken down. This process generates ATP, NADH, and FADH2. The cycle is named after Hans Krebs, who discovered it in the 1930s.
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One molecule of glucose entering the glycolysis process will eventually yield a net gain of 38 ATP molecules (2 molecules generated during glycolysis, 32 ATP generated during the citric acid cycle, and 4 ATP generated through oxidative phosphorylation) and 2 molecules of CO2.
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Glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration, which converts glucose into pyruvate. This process consists of 10 steps, each controlled by specific enzymes.
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The preparatory phase of glycolysis requires ATP to begin and produces two molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) from the initial two molecules of Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP).
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In the payoff phase, ATP and NADH are generated from the conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to pyruvate through substrate level phosphorylation.
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The final products of glycolysis are two molecules of pyruvate. The entire process occurs in the cytoplasm.
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Glycogen and starch serve as feeders for glycolysis. They are broken down and enter the preparatory stage of glycolysis, contributing to the overall ATP generation.
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Lactose intolerant individuals cannot convert lactose into glucose due to a lack or lower level of the enzyme lactase. As a result, the undigested lactose is fermented by gut bacteria, which leads to symptoms like gas, bloating, pain, and diarrhea.
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In the absence of oxygen, pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid, and the transferred electrons oxidize NADH back to NAD+. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). High levels of lactate can lead to muscle cramps, pain, and potentially life-threatening conditions.
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The Cori cycle (also known as the lactic acid cycle) describes the process by which lactate produced during anaerobic glycolysis is transported to the liver, where it is converted back to glucose. This process requires ATP, and the resulting glucose can be either used or stored as glycogen.
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The heart and brain must be continuously supplied with fuel and cannot be starved. In the absence of glucose, pyruvate can be converted to glucose through the process of gluconeogenesis, which occurs in the liver. This process will be covered more in diabetes lectures.
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In the presence of oxygen, pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA and enters the next stage of metabolism, the citric acid cycle, which occurs in the mitochondria. Pyruvate moves through the mitochondrial membrane to encounter the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH).
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The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or the tricarboxylic acid cycle, is the next stage of metabolism where acetyl CoA derived from pyruvate is further broken down. This process generates ATP, NADH, and FADH2. The cycle is named after Hans Krebs, who discovered it in the 1930s.
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One molecule of glucose entering the glycolysis process will eventually yield a net gain of 38 ATP molecules (2 molecules generated during glycolysis, 32 ATP generated during the citric acid cycle, and 4 ATP generated through oxidative phosphorylation) and 2 molecules of CO2.
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This quiz covers the content of Week 13 lecture on enzymes for the MPharm Programme. Topics include enzyme structure, classification, co-factors, cellular metabolism, enzyme function, substrate interaction, enzyme kinetics, and enzyme inhibition.
