Week 9-10 PHA112 Cell Structure Lecture 1 and 2 2023-24 Student Handout PDF

WEEKS 9 10 MPharm Programme Cell Science ‐ Introduction to Cellular Structure 1, 2 & 3 Dr Praveen Bhugra PHA112 Slide 1 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Learning Objectives • By the end of this lecture you should be able to understand and be able to explain in detail followi...

WEEKS 9 10 MPharm Programme Cell Science ‐ Introduction to Cellular Structure 1, 2 & 3 Dr Praveen Bhugra PHA112 Slide 1 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Learning Objectives • By the end of this lecture you should be able to understand and be able to explain in detail following • Cell Theory • Stem cells theory • Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells • Differentiation between plant cell, animal cell and bacteria • Structure and function of three main parts of cell (Plasma Membrane; Cytoplasm [cytosol and cell organelles] and Nucleus) Slide 2• of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Cells Theory The basic concept of the cell theory can be summarized as follows; • Cells are building blocks of all plants and animal • All cells come from the division of preexisting cells • Cells are the smallest units that perform all vital physiological functions • Each cell maintains homeostasis at the cellular level Slide 3 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 Cells in the human body 10 • All the parts of your body are made up of cells • There are an estimated 3.72x1013 cells in the body (Bianconi et al., (2013) Ann Human Biol. 40, 463‐71) • There is no such thing as a typical cell • The body has many different kinds of cells • Though they might look different under a microscope, most cells have chemical and structural features in common • In humans, there are about 200 different types of cells, and within these cells there are about 20 different types of structures or organelles Slide 4 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Diversity of Human Cells • Adult humans consist of more than 200 kinds of cells. • They are nerve cells (neurons), muscle cells (myocytes), skin (epithelial) cells, blood cells (erythrocytes, monocytes, lymphocytes, etc.), bone cells (osteocytes), and cartilage cells (chondrocytes). • Cells essential for embryonic development but not incorporated into the body of the embryo, include the extra-embryonic tissues, placenta, and umbilical cord. • All of these cells are generated from a single, totipotent cell, the zygote, or fertilized egg Slide 5 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Diversity of Human Cells Erythrocytes Fibroblasts Epithelial cells (a) Cells that connect body parts, form linings, or transport gases Skeletal Smooth Muscle muscle cells cell (b) Cells that move organs and body parts Macrophage Nerve cell (e) Cell that gathers information and control body functions (f) Cell of reproduction Fat cell (c) Cell that stores(d) Cell that nutrients fights disease Slide 6 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 Sperm WEEKS 9 10 Slide 7 of 69 Diversity of Human Cells PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 Stem cells WEEKS 9 - • Stem cells are undifferentiated biological cells that can 10 differentiate into specialized cells and can divide (through mitosis) to produce more stem cells • In mammals, there are two broad types of stem cells: – embryonic stem cells isolated from the inner cell mass of blastocysts – adult stem cells, which are found in various tissues • In adults, stem cells and progenitor cells act as a repair system for the body • In a developing embryo, stem cells can differentiate • Slide 8 of 69 into all the specialized cells—ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm (germ layers ‐ which give rise to ALL the bodies tissues and organs) PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Stem cells (Growth and development of the embryo) Slide 9 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Slide 10 of 69 Stem cells PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS Stem cells potency 9 - • Potency specifies the differentiation potential (the potential to 10 differentiate into different cell types) of the stem cell • Totipotent (or omnipotent) stem cells can differentiate into embryonic and extraembryonic cell types. Such cells can construct a complete, viable organism. These cells are produced from the fusion of an egg and sperm cell. • Pluripotent stem cells are the descendants of totipotent cells and can differentiate into nearly all cells, i.e. cells derived from any of the three germ layers • Multipotent stem cells can differentiate into a number of cell types, but only those of a closely related family of cells • Oligopotent stem cells can differentiate into only a few cell types, such as lymphoid or myeloid stem cells • Unipotent cells can produce only one cell type, their own, but have the property of self‐renewal, which distinguishes them from non‐stem cells Slide 11 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Slide 12 of 69 Stem cells potency PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS Stem cell division and differentiation 9 10 • A: stem cell • B: progenitor cell • C: differentiated cell 1. symmetric stem cell division 2. asymmetric stem cell division 3. progenitor division 4. terminal differentiation Slide 13 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Stem cell division and differentiation Slide 14 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Slide 15 of 69 Potential uses of stem cells PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Stem cells potency & source developmental Slide 16 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Hierarchy of haemopoietin differentiation B Cells T Cells NK Cells Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cell Monocytoid Dendritic Cell Monocyte Granulocyte Basophil Mast Cell Eosinophil RBCs Platelets Slide 17 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 Characteristics of all cell types WEEKS 9 10 • A surrounding membrane • Protoplasm – cell contents in thick fluid • Organelles – structures for cell function • Control center with DNA • On this basis we have: • – Prokaryotic • – Eukaryotic Slide 18 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Slide 19 of 69 Characteristics of all cell types PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS Prokaryotic Cells 9 10 • Cells that lack a nucleus or • • • • • • membrane-bound organelles Simplest type of cell Single, circular chromosome Nucleoid region (center) contains the DNA Surrounded by cell membrane & cell wall (peptidoglycan) Contain ribosomes (no membrane) in their cytoplasm to make proteins One-celled organisms, Bacteria Slide 20 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS Prokaryotic Cells 9 10 • Cell walls -protect the cell and maintain cell shape • Bacterial cell walls - may be composed of peptidoglycan -may be Gram positive or Gram negative • Archaean cell walls lack peptidoglycan. • Flagella - present in some prokaryotic cells -used for locomotion and -rotary motion propels the cell Slide 21 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS Prokaryotic Cells (Bacteria) 9 10 • Bacteria may be classified according to their response to Gram’s Stain • Gram +ve • Gram–ve • Gram‐positive bacteria have a thick mesh‐like cell wall made of peptidoglycan (50‐90% of cell wall), which stain purple • Gram‐negative bacteria have a thinner layer (10% of cell wall), which stain pink Slide 22 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS Prokaryotic Cells (Bacteria) 9 10 Gram positive S. aureus Slide 23 of 69 PHA112 Gram negative E. coli Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Slide 24 of 69 Prokaryotic Cells (Bacteria) PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Prokaryotic Cells (Bacteria) Comparative Characteristics of Gram Positive and Gram Negative Bacteria Slide 25 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS Eukaryotic Cells 9 10 • Possess a membrane-bound nucleus • More complex than prokaryotic cells • Compartmentalize many cellular functions within organelles and the endomembrane system • Possess a cytoskeleton for support and to maintain cellular structure • Include fungi, protozoa, plant, and animal cells Protozoan Slide 26 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Slide 27 of 69 Eukaryotic Cells PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Slide 28 of 69 Plant Cell PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Slide 29 of 69 Animal Cell PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS Cell Structure 9 10 • The three main parts of a cell 1. Plasma membrane 2. Cytoplasm: cytosol + organelles 3. Nucleus Cytoplasm Slide 30 of 69 Cytosol PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Generalized View of Cell Structure Slide 31 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Plasma Membrane Membranes form a major structural element in cells.  Phospholipid bilayer  Cholesterol  Proteins (integral and peripheral)  Attached carbohydrates (glycolipids and glycoproteins) Slide 32 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS Plasma Membrane 9 10 • Functions of membranes include:     Slide 33 of 69 Barrier between inside and outside of cell Controls entry of materials: transport Receives chemical and mechanical signals Transmits signals between intra- and extracellular spaces PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Plasma Membrane (Phospholipids) Phospholipids are amphipathic. Organized into a bilayer with the nonpolar fatty acid chains in the middle. The polar regions of the phospholipids are oriented toward the surfaces of the membrane as a result of their attraction to the polar water molecules in the extracellular fluid and cytosol. Slide 34 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Plasma Membrane (Phospholipids)  Fatty acid tails – hydrophobic  Phosphate group head – hydrophilic Slide 35 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Plasma Membrane (Cholesterol) • The plasma membrane also contains cholesterol, whereas intracellular membranes contain very little cholesterol. • Cholesterol associates with certain classes of plasma membrane phospholipids and proteins, forming organized clusters that work together to pinch off portions of the plasma membrane to form vesicles that deliver their contents to various intracellular organelles. Slide 36 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Plasma Membrane (Cholesterol) • Cholesterol molecules are weakly amphipathic • The tiny —OH group is the only polar region of cholesterol, and it forms hydrogen bonds with the polar heads of phospholipids and glycolipids. • The stiff steroid rings and hydrocarbon tail of cholesterol are nonpolar; they fit among the fatty acid tails of the phospholipids and glycolipids. Slide 37 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Plasma Membrane (Cholesterol) • Cholesterol has temperature dependent effects on membrane fluidity • Warm temperatures – restrains phospholipid movement • Cold temperatures – maintains fluidity by preventing tight packing Slide 38 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Plasma Membrane (Glycolipids) • The carbohydrate groups of glycolipids form a polar "head"; their fatty acid "tails" are nonpolar. • Glycolipids appear only in the membrane layer that faces the extracellular fluid, which is one reason the two sides of the bilayer are asymmetric, or different. Slide 39 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS Plasma Membrane (Protein) 9 - • There are two classes of membrane proteins: integral and 10 peripheral. Integral membrane proteins • Closely associated with the membrane lipids, cannot be extracted from the membrane without disrupting the lipid bilayer, and are amphipathic. • Most integral proteins span the entire membrane and are referred to as transmembrane proteins. • Most of these transmembrane proteins cross the lipid bilayer several times. • Some transmembrane proteins form channels through which ions or water can cross the membrane, whereas others are associated with the transmission of chemical signals across the membrane or the anchoring of extracellular and intracellular protein filaments to the plasma membrane. Slide 40 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Plasma Membrane (Protein) Peripheral membrane proteins • Are not amphipathic and do not associate with the nonpolar regions of the lipids in the interior of the membrane. • Located at the membrane surface where they are bound to the polar regions of the integral membrane proteins. Slide 41 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Plasma Membrane (Protein) • Many membrane proteins are glycoproteins, proteins with carbohydrate groups attached to the ends that protrude into the extracellular fluid. • The carbohydrate portions of glycolipids and glycoproteins form an extensive sugary coat called the glycocalyx. • Glycocalx acts like a molecular "signature" that enables cells to recognize one another Slide 42 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Slide 43 of 69 Plasma Membrane (Protein) PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS Plasma Membrane (Junctions) 9 10 • Many cells are physically joined by types of junctions: desmosomes, tight junctions, and gap junctions. • Integrins are transmembrane proteins in the plasma membrane which bind to specific proteins in the extracellular matrix and link them to membrane proteins on adjacent cells. Slide 44 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 Desmosomes - • Characterized by accumulations of 10 protein known as dense plaques along the cytoplasmic surface of the plasma membrane. • These proteins serve as anchoring points for cadherins. • Cadherins are proteins that extend from the cell into the extracellular space, where they link up and bind with cadherins from an adjacent cell. • Desmosomes hold adjacent cells firmly together in areas that are subject to considerable stretching, such as the skin. Slide 45 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 Tight junctions 10 • Form when the extracellular surfaces of two adjacent plasma membranes join together so that no extracellular space remains between them. • Unlike the desmosome, which is limited to a disk-shaped area of the membrane, the tight junction occurs in a band around the entire circumference of the cell. Slide 46 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 Gap junctions 9 10 • Consist of protein channels linking the cytosols of adjacent cells. WEEKS • Connexins from the two membranes join, forming small, protein-lined channels linking the two cells. • Diameter of about 1.5 nm limits what can pass between the cytosols of the connected cells to small molecules and ions, such as Na+ and K+, and excludes the exchange of large proteins. • Example: Muscle cells of the heart cells Slide 47 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 Functions of Cell Membranes WEEKS 9 10 1. Regulate the passage of substances into and out of cells and between organelles and cystosol 2. Detect chemical messengers arriving at the cell surface 3. Link adjacent cells together by membrane junctions 4. Anchor cells to the extracellular matrix Slide 48 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Slide 49 of 69 Cytoplasm PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS Cytoplasm (Cytosol) 9 10 • Fluid portion of cytoplasm that surrounds organelles. • Constitutes about 55% of total cell volume. • Cytosol is 75-90% water plus various dissolved and suspended components (such as ions, glucose amino acids, fatty acids, proteins, lipids, ATP, and waste products. • Also present in some cells are various organic molecules that aggregate into masses for storage; which may appear and disappear at different times in the life of a cell. • Cytosol site of many chemical reactions required for a cell's existence. Slide 50 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Cytoplasm (Cell Organelles) • • • • • • • Cytoskeleton Flagella, cilia & centrioles Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Mitochondrion Nucleus, nucleolus, nuclear envelope Vesicles, e.g. lysosome Slide 51 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Cell Organelles (Cytoskeleton) • Maintains shape of cell • Positions organelles • Changes cell shape • Includes: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules Slide 52 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS Cell Organelles (Cytoskeleton) 9 10 • Microfilaments (also called Actin filaments) and Microtubules can be assembled and disassembled rapidly, allowing a cell to alter these components of its cytoskeletal framework according to changing requirements. • Intermediate filaments, once assembled, are less readily disassembled. Slide 53 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 Cell Organelles (Centrosome) WEEKS 9 10 • Structure: – Two centrioles arranged perpendicular to each other • Composed of microtubules: 9 clusters of 3 (triplets) – Pericentriolar material • Composed of tubulin that grows the mitotic spindle • Function: moves chromosomes to ends of cell during cell division Slide 54 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS Cell Organelles (Cilia and Flagella) 9 • Specialized for 10 motion • Flagellum: single tail like structure on sperm – Propels sperm forward in reproductive tract • Cilia: in groups – Found in respiratory system: move mucus Slide 55 of 69 PHA112 Doublet microtubules Cilium or flagellum Central pair of microtubules Plasma membrane Basal body Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS Cell Organelles Ribosomes 9 - • Made within the nucleus 10 • • • • (in nucleolus) Sites of protein synthesis (on E.R. or freely within cytoplasm) Consist of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) + proteins Contain large and small subunits Can be attached to endoplasmic reticulum or free in cytosol Slide 56 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 Cell Organelles (Endoplasmic Reticulum (E.R.)) WEEKS 9 10 • Structure: network of folded membranes • Functions: synthesis, intracellular transport • Types of E.R. – Rough E.R.: studded with ribosomes (sites of protein synthesis) – Smooth E.R. lacks ribosomes. • Functions: – lipid synthesis – release of glucose in liver cells into bloodstream – drug detoxification (especially in liver cells) – storage and release of Ca2+ in muscle cells (where smooth E.R. is known as sarcoplasmic reticulum or SR) Slide 57 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Slide 58 of 69 Cell Organelles (Endoplasmic Reticulum (E.R.)) PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 Cell Organelles - • Structure: 10 (Golgi Complex) – Flattened membranes (cisterns) with bulging edges (like stacks of pita bread) • Functions: – Modify proteins  glycoproteins and lipoproteins that: • Become parts of plasma membranes • Are stored in lysosomes, or • Are exported by exocytosis Slide 59 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 Cell 9 10 • Structure: WEEKS Organelles (Lysosomes) – Spherical or oval surrounded by single membrane – Typical cell may contain several hundred lysosomes • Functions: • Contain variety of digestive enzymes • Help in final processes of digestion within cells • Carry out autophagy (destruction of worn out parts of cell) and death of old cells (autolysis) • Tay-Sachs: hereditary disorder; one missing lysosomal enzyme leads to nerve destruction Slide 60 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 Cell Organelles 9 10 • Structure : WEEKS (Peroxisomes) – are moderately dense oval bodies enclosed by a single membrane. • Function: – consume molecular oxygen and it undergoes reactions that remove hydrogen from organic molecules including lipids, alcohol, and potentially toxic ingested substances. • Detoxify; abundant in liver Slide 61 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 Cell Organelles 9 10 • Structure : WEEKS (Proteasomes) – Tiny barrel shaped structure that contain proteases (proteolytic enzyme). • Function: – Digest unneeded or faulty proteins – Faulty proteins accumulate in brain cells in persons with Parkinson or Alzheimer disease. Slide 62 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Cell Organelles (Mitochondria) • Structure: – Sausage-shaped with many folded membranes (cristae) and liquid matrix containing enzymes – Have some DNA, ribosomes (can make proteins) Slide 63 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Cell Organelles (Mitochondria) • Function: – Major site of ATP production , O2 utilization and CO2 formation – Contains enzyme active in Kreb’s cycle and oxidative phosphorylation • Abundant in muscle, liver, and kidney cells – These cells require much ATP Slide 64 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 Nucleus 9 - • Round or oval structure surrounded by nuclear 10 envelope with nuclear pores WEEKS • Contains nucleolus: makes ribosomes that pass into cytoplasm through nuclear pores • Within the nucleus, DNA, in association with proteins, forms a fine network of threads known as chromatin Slide 65 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 Nucleus 9 10 • Most prominent structure in the nucleus is the nucleolus. WEEKS – Densely staining filamentous region without a membrane. – Associated with specific regions of DNA that contain the genes for forming the particular type of RNA found in cytoplasmic organelles called ribosomes. – Store genetic material (DNA) in genes arranged in 46 chromosomes (the human genome containing 30,000 genes!) – DNA contains information for directing protein synthesis: • In the cell • In new cells (formed by cell reproduction) Slide 66 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Comparison of Bacterial, Animal and Plant cells Slide 67 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Slide 68 of 69 Cells Parts and Their Functions PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2 WEEKS 9 10 Further Reading Refer to the Following Textbooks • Ross and Wilson Anatomy and Physiology in Health and illness 13th Edition • Gerard J. Tortora and Byran H. Derrickson Principles of Anatomy and Physiology 13th Edition • Frederic H. Martini Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology 7th Edition • Elaine N. Marieb and Katja Hoehn Human Anatomy & Physiology 8th Edition • VanPutte, Regan and Russo Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology 12th Edition Slide 69 of 69 PHA112 Cellular Structure 1 &2