Motivation Theories: Instinct, Drive, Arousal & Incentive

• Motivation and emotion are key drivers of behavior and are influenced by various factors.

Major Approaches to Motivation

• Instinct Theory posits behavior is driven by innate instincts, focusing on evolutionary programming.
• An example of instinctual behavior is the rooting reflex in infants.
• Drive-Reduction Theory suggests motivation arises from biological needs that create a drive to restore homeostasis.
• Primary drives are biological needs such as food and water.
• Secondary drives are learned needs, including money and social approval.
• Arousal Theory proposes people seek an optimal level of arousal.
• Too little arousal leads to boredom, while too much arousal results in stress.
• The Yerkes-Dodson Law states that moderate arousal leads to optimal performance.
• Incentive Theory suggests behavior is motivated by external rewards, focusing on the "pull" of external goals like money or praise.
• Cognitive Theory suggests motivation is influenced by thoughts and expectations.
• Intrinsic motivation involves doing something for personal satisfaction.
• Extrinsic motivation involves doing something for external rewards.
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is a pyramid of needs that includes physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, and self-actualization.
• Lower needs in Maslow's hierarchy must be met before higher ones can be addressed.

Need for Food/Eating

• Hormones such as ghrelin (hunger) and leptin (satiety) are biological factors influencing the need for food.
• The hypothalamus regulates hunger and fullness.
• Cultural norms influence eating habits.
• Social settings and peer behavior impact food choices.

Need to Belong

• The need for social connection is a fundamental human need.
• Loneliness is linked to poor physical health, higher mortality rates, and mental health issues.
• Modern society has seen increased feelings of loneliness despite technological advancements.

Need for Achievement

• High achievers set challenging but realistic goals.
• High achievers are persistent and motivated by success.
• Low achievers avoid challenges due to fear of failure.

Emotions

• Emotions help people respond to stimuli, make decisions, and communicate with others.
• Ekman identified six universal emotions: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise.
• These six emotions are universally recognized across cultures.
• The James-Lange Theory suggests physiological arousal precedes emotional experience, such as "I feel afraid because my heart is racing."
• The Cannon-Bard Theory suggests arousal and emotion occur simultaneously, such as "I feel afraid as my heart races."
• The Schachter-Singer (Two-Factor) Theory suggests emotion depends on arousal combined with cognitive labeling, such as "My heart races because I see a bear; I must be afraid."
• Dr. Lisa Feldman-Barrett theorizes that emotions are constructed based on context and past experiences.
• Dr. Susan David emphasizes the importance of accepting emotions without judgment, which is known as emotional agility.

Happiness

• Strong relationships, meaningful work, and gratitude practices predict happiness.
• Wealth beyond basic needs, physical attractiveness, and age do not necessarily predict happiness.

Development

• Development is shaped by the interaction between genetic predispositions and environmental influences.
• Cross-sectional studies compare different age groups at one point in time.
• Longitudinal studies follow the same group over time.
• Sequential studies combine cross-sectional and longitudinal methods.

Prenatal Development

• The germinal stage lasts the first two weeks and involves zygote formation.
• The embryonic stage occurs during weeks 3–8, during which organ development begins.
• The fetal stage lasts from week 9 to birth and involves the growth and maturation of systems.
• Teratogens are harmful substances, such as drugs, alcohol, and infections, that affect prenatal development.

Attachment Theories

• Bowlby theorized that attachment is an evolutionary mechanism for survival.
• Harlow's experiments with monkeys showed they preferred comfort over food when forming attachments.
• Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Task identifies secure, avoidant, and anxious attachment styles.

Cognitive Development

• Piaget’s stages of cognitive development include:
• Sensorimotor (0–2 years): Object permanence develops.
• Preoperational (2–7 years): Egocentrism and symbolic thinking emerges.
• Concrete Operational (7–11 years): Logical thinking about concrete objects develops.
• Formal Operational (12+ years): Abstract reasoning develops.
• Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development posits that learning occurs best with guidance just beyond current ability.

Adulthood and Aging

• Emerging adulthood involves identity exploration in the late teens and early twenties.
• Disengagement theory states that gradual withdrawal from social roles is normal in aging.
• Activity theory suggests staying active leads to better well-being in older adults.

Personality

• Genetics, shared environment, and non-shared environment influences personality.
• Twin studies show a strong genetic influence on traits like extraversion and neuroticism.
• Family environment has less influence than previously thought.
• Unique experiences shape personality differences.
• Freud’s Theory includes three components:
• Id: Primitive desires (pleasure principle).
• Ego: Rational self (reality principle).
• Superego: Moral conscience.

Defense Mechanisms

• Repression involves pushing anxiety-inducing thoughts into the unconscious.
• Rationalization involves justifying behaviors with logical explanations.
• Projection involves attributing one’s own feelings to others.
• Displacement involves redirecting emotions to a safer target.

Trait Theories

• The Big Five Traits include Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.
• Eysenck’s Dimensions include Extraversion vs. introversion, Neuroticism vs. stability and Psychoticism.

Stress and Coping

• Lazarus & Folkman’s Transactional Model includes:
• Primary appraisal which assess if something is a threat.
• Secondary appraisal which assess if the person can cope with the threat.
• Types of Stressors:
• Cataclysmic events such as natural disasters.
• Personal stressors such as major life changes.
• Daily hassles such as traffic.

Effects of Stress

• The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) includes:
• Alarm stage.
• Resistance stage.
• Exhaustion stage.
• Type A personality is linked to heart disease.

Coping Strategies

• Problem-focused coping involves addressing the source of stress directly.
• Emotion-focused coping involves managing emotional responses to stress.
• Exercise and meditation reduces stress hormones like cortisol.

Explore major motivation theories: instinct, drive-reduction, arousal (Yerkes-Dodson Law), incentive, and cognitive. Understand how these theories explain the drivers behind behavior and the pursuit of goals. Learn about primary and secondary drives.