Milgram's Obedience Study Overview
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Questions and Answers

What was the main aim of Milgram's research?

  • To study the psychological impact of war
  • To analyze individual’s personality traits
  • To investigate memory retention in learners
  • To examine obedience in the absence of threats (correct)

    • During the Milgram experiment, what role did the participant always assume?

  • Teacher (correct)
  • Authority figure
  • Learner
  • Observer

    • What percentage of participants administered the highest voltage shock in Milgram's study?

  • 70%
  • 55.5%
  • 75%
  • 62.5% (correct)

    • How did proximity of the authority figure affect obedience in Milgram's variations?

    <p>Orders given over the phone resulted in lower obedience</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of the significant results regarding the psychological state of participants?

    <p>Participants showed signs of stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which variation led to the lowest percentage of participants obeying by administering the highest voltage?

    <p>Orders given over the phone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'agentic state' refer to in the context of Milgram's experiment?

    <p>Seeing oneself as an extension of the experimenter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the experiment's results challenge the notion of personality characteristics in obedience?

    <p>Most participants attributed their actions to external factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age do children typically begin to pass the classic false belief task?

    <p>4 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the violation of expectation task demonstrate about children's understanding of others' beliefs?

    <p>Children understand that others can have knowledge based on their own experiences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of social cognition?

    <p>Studying processes used to interpret social interactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of executive functions is primarily related to self-control?

    <p>Inhibition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the unexpected content task, what understanding do children develop around age 2.5?

    <p>Children recognize that others can be mistaken about the locations of objects.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What age is suggested to be the time when implicit measures of theory of mind can be seen in children?

    <p>2.5 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'preservation' refer to in the context of infants' behavior?

    <p>Persisting in a response that is no longer appropriate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT considered a component of executive functions?

    <p>Social interaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main criticism of classic false belief tasks?

    <p>They require a hypothetical situation that is too complex.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines implicit theories of mind in children?

    <p>They are shown through actions rather than explicit reasoning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the sensorimotor stage in child development?

    <p>Concept of object permanence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does egocentrism refer to in the developmental context?

    <p>Difficulty in understanding others' perspectives</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main task used to demonstrate children's egocentrism?

    <p>Three mountain task</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what developmental stage do children begin to solve problems in a concrete manner?

    <p>Concrete operational stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept is associated with understanding that changes in appearance do not change the object's essence?

    <p>Conservation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stage of cognitive development focuses on abstract problem-solving?

    <p>Formal operational stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key difference between Piaget's and Vygotsky's theoretical perspectives?

    <p>Piaget did not consider the influence of others on cognitive development.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes the difference between what a child can do independently and with assistance?

    <p>Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of development did Vygotsky emphasize as crucial for a child's learning?

    <p>Interactions with other people</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did Piaget gather insights for his theory of cognitive development?

    <p>By observing children's reactions to problem-solving tasks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the concept of 'motionese' as used in caregiver-infant interactions?

    <p>Adapted movements and expressions to engage infants</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does social referencing play in child development?

    <p>It shows how children use emotions of others to guide actions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age do infants begin to understand object permanence according to Baillargeon et al.?

    <p>5 months</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the contact principle, what is necessary for inanimate objects to affect each other?

    <p>Physical contact between the objects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT considered a criticism of Piaget's theory?

    <p>It lacks empirical evidence to support its stages.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What cognitive skill do children develop in the formal operational stage?

    <p>Thinking in hypothetical scenarios</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which task was used to investigate children's understanding of different perspectives and led to theories about theory of mind?

    <p>The three mountains task</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of executive functions in children?

    <p>They include the ability to control thoughts and actions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key feature of constructivism according to Piaget?

    <p>Children actively construct their understanding of the world.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What age do children typically begin to show systematic reasoning abilities during preschool years?

    <p>3-4 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which developmental aspect is emphasized by Vygotsky's theory?

    <p>The role of social context in learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about theory of mind is accurate?

    <p>It involves understanding one's own and others' beliefs and desires</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does research suggest about the innate capacity for imitation in infants?

    <p>It may be present or develop early, but is still debated</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one major criticism of Piaget's theory of development?

    <p>It underestimates the importance of social interactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    From what age can children typically understand the concept of causality using the contact principle?

    <p>Under 2 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the false belief task reveal about a child's cognitive development?

    <p>Children can recognize that others can hold different beliefs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which age range do children begin to show signs of improved social referencing?

    <p>6 months to 1 year</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Milgram find regarding people’s obedience to authority when encouraged by an experimenter in a white coat?

    <p>65% would go all the way to the maximum shock.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which concept did Reicher, Haslam, and Smith propose to explain the phenomenon of obedience?

    <p>Active identification with the authority figure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Burger suggest about the ethical replication of Milgram's study?

    <p>It can ethically replicate up to 150 volts while inferring further behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What key observation did Slater et al. (2006) make regarding participants’ reactions in virtual reality studies?

    <p>Participants displayed physiological reactions as though they perceived the learner as real.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a significant finding regarding participants' behavior in Milgram's original experiment when faced with a verbal designation of shock levels?

    <p>Participants were willing to continue administering shocks despite the designations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What ethical issue was highlighted concerning participants' willingness to withdraw from Milgram's experiment?

    <p>Participants felt overly pressured and their rights were compromised.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary criticism of using laboratory research in studies of obedience such as Milgram's?

    <p>Laboratory settings may create an artificial environment that reduces ecological validity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Gonzalez-Franco et al. (2018) suggest about participants in virtual reality studies?

    <p>Participants' likelihood of continuing depended on the perceived realism of the scenario.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Milgram's findings, what situation greatly reduced conformity among participants?

    <p>Introduction of a rebel model among the participants.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the controlled experiment by Hofling et al. (1966), what policy was in place regarding drug administration in hospitals?

    <p>Nurses were required to check for written orders before administering drugs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one effect of teratogens on infant development?

    <p>They cause atypical development if exposed during pregnancy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What cognitive ability do infants lack during the sensorimotor stage according to Piaget?

    <p>Object permanence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stage in Piaget's theory allows children to understand abstract concepts?

    <p>Formal operational stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The A-not-B error demonstrates which of the following concepts in infant cognition?

    <p>Perseverative reaching and misunderstanding of object permanence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about brain development is true?

    <p>Myelination in the brain continues until approximately 2 years old.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which aspect of child development do teratogens not have an effect?

    <p>Social skills</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does social influence primarily function within groups according to the conclusions presented?

    <p>It fosters public compliance without private acceptance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of neural plasticity during early development?

    <p>To enable the formation of new synapses and maintain neural pathways.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which conclusion relates to group norms and social influence?

    <p>Social influence can change group norms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key reason individuals may conform to group expectations?

    <p>To avoid punishment or rejection.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of developmental psychology as described?

    <p>Understanding how abilities develop throughout childhood.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What historical figure is known for his stage theory of cognitive development?

    <p>Jean Piaget</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the main conclusion drawn from Sherif's 1935 study on group norms?

    <p>Judgments represent conformity to a group norm.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age does Piaget suggest children enter the concrete operational stage?

    <p>7-12 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Asch aim to demonstrate with his line judgment task?

    <p>That objective reality can be challenged by social influence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does a child's desire to be liked play in group dynamics?

    <p>It mediates conformity and agreement with in-group members.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of group dynamics did Turner (1991) emphasize in his contemporary research?

    <p>The role of trust among group members.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Deutsch and Gerrard's dual process theory, what type of influence is associated with the Sherif study?

    <p>Informational influence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'referent informational influence' imply based on contemporary research?

    <p>Agreement among members enhances confidence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a significant finding from Platow et al.'s studies regarding laughter in groups?

    <p>Laughter is more influenced by in-group behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the outcome of the line judgment tasks conducted by Asch?

    <p>Majority of subjects conformed to incorrect answers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the presence of an in-group member affect participants in Platow et al.'s study involving icy water?

    <p>It significantly reduced their perceived pain.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Allport's view of a group highlighted which of the following aspects?

    <p>Group behaviour cannot be analyzed without individual context.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do social norms dictate about behavior?

    <p>Acceptable ways to behave in specific contexts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What critical aspect did Milgram's research highlight regarding obedience?

    <p>Identification with authority figures is essential for obedience.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does conformity to a group norm imply according to the findings of Sherif's study?

    <p>Group consensus leads to permanent behavioral changes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What contradiction did Asch's findings present regarding objective reality?

    <p>Social influence can alter perceptions of clear reality.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did Sherif assess the influence of group norms in his auto-kinetic effect experiment?

    <p>Using a visual illusion of movement to elicit group responses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary characteristic of prosopagnosia?

    <p>Severe impairment in face recognition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the inversion effect indicate about face recognition?

    <p>Configural processing is essential for recognizing faces</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes the principle of embodied cognition?

    <p>Cognitive engagements result in similar brain activations for thinking and interacting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does priming work within the framework of embodied cognition?

    <p>It activates multiple components of a representation through mental simulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to traditional cognition, where are representations stored in the brain?

    <p>In areas separate from sensory and motor regions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of cones in the retina?

    <p>Sensitivity to colors under light</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a cue for depth perception?

    <p>Relative size</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'size constancy' refer to?

    <p>Understanding that objects maintain a consistent size despite distance changes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon is demonstrated when individuals find inverted faces more challenging to recognize?

    <p>Thatcher effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the brain process color perception?

    <p>By comparing the activity between the three types of cones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of face preference in early development according to the findings of Valenza et al. (1996)?

    <p>Infants show a longer gaze at face-like patterns</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following represents a cognitive process essential for depth perception?

    <p>The integration of sensory information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does eye contact play in communication, according to the content?

    <p>It facilitates emotional understanding and social interaction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the concept of 'Gestalt' emphasize in visual perception?

    <p>The integration of elements into meaningful wholes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three main components of executive functions?

    <p>Inhibition, working memory, and shifting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of processing does the 'holistic' face processing account suggest is used for face recognition?

    <p>A focus on global configuration of features</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition is characterized by impairments in social skills and executive functions similar to those found in ADHD?

    <p>Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of development do mirror neurons primarily relate to?

    <p>Imitation and understanding actions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is the locked-in syndrome characterized?

    <p>Unresponsive but awake, unable to move or speak</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What cognitive skill is notably impaired in children with ASD when they are asked to imitate actions?

    <p>Imitating actions with visible effects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain lobe is primarily responsible for motor activity and speech?

    <p>Frontal lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which technique is NOT primarily used for investigating brain function?

    <p>Post mortem dissection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'contralateral organisation' refer to in brain function?

    <p>Control of muscle and limb movements on opposite sides</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about the a not b error is correct?

    <p>It is an example of perseveration in infancy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does biological psychology seek to bridge?

    <p>Psychology and neuroscience</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neuroimaging technique provides information on brain function?

    <p>EEG</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements best describes executive functions?

    <p>They allow for voluntary behavior, goal setting, and self-monitoring.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What symptoms are commonly associated with children diagnosed with ASD?

    <p>Repetitive behaviors and poor imitation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hemisphere of the brain is primarily responsible for language and logical reasoning?

    <p>Left hemisphere</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do the basal ganglia play in the nervous system?

    <p>Control of movement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with memory and muscular movement?

    <p>Acetylcholine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of damage to the amygdala?

    <p>Problems with recognition of fear</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What typically occurs in the body during a 'fight or flight' response?

    <p>Heightened emotional responses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens during depolarization in a neuron?

    <p>Sodium ions move into the neuron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of drug is classified as a stimulant?

    <p>Cocaine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is primarily affected in Phineas Gage's case after his accident?

    <p>Frontal lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the DSM-5 specify as a criterion for substance use disorders?

    <p>Hazardous use of substance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does myelination play in the nervous system?

    <p>Speeds up action potentials</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is NOT part of the limbic system?

    <p>Cerebellum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an agonist drug?

    <p>A drug that enhances neurotransmitter actions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about emotional responses is FALSE?

    <p>Psychopaths show increased amygdala activation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes physical dependence on drugs?

    <p>Diminished drug effects with repeated use</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of neurotransmitters?

    <p>To transmit signals between neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept explains the disparity between ancestral conditions and the modern environment in terms of health issues related to diet?

    <p>Evolutionary mismatch</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes inter-sexual selection?

    <p>Selection based on opposite sex preferences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary criticism of evolutionary psychology, particularly regarding methodological approaches?

    <p>Challenges in testing backward inferences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of aggression, which evolutionary prediction suggests deterring mates from infidelity?

    <p>Deterring rivals from future aggression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What subfield of psychology focuses on comparing evolutionary traits across species to derive insights into human behavior?

    <p>Comparative evolutionary psychology</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement correctly reflects the difference between natural selection and sexual selection?

    <p>Natural selection facilitates adaptation to environments.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do early and late emergences of traits relate to socio-cultural learning according to the comparative approach?

    <p>Earlier traits are less likely to rely on socio-cultural factors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one example of a mismatch between ancestral fears and modern dangers?

    <p>Fear of spiders vs. fear of firearms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of comparative evolutionary psychology, which of the following is NOT one of the three methodological perspectives combined?

    <p>Behavioral analysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What evolutionary prediction involves defending against outgroup attacks?

    <p>Defending against out group attack</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does anxiety have on encoding of memories during a crime event?

    <p>Anxiety reduces memory encoding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is linked to increased misinformation acceptance over time?

    <p>Vividness of the deceptive information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can source misattribution errors occur during recall?

    <p>Through a failure in examining contextual origins of a memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one approach that can help improve children's accuracy in recalling events?

    <p>Allowing children to produce drawings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinction did Tulving make between familiarity and recollection?

    <p>Familiarity is automatic, while recollection is attention-demanding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some recommended practices for improving eyewitness identification?

    <p>Sequential line-ups and issuing confidence statements.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon demonstrates the fragility of eyewitness testimony?

    <p>The acceptance of misleading information immediately after an event.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which element affects eyewitness recall due to suggestibility?

    <p>The wording used during questioning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In research on eyewitness identification, which group tends to have higher accuracy?

    <p>Witnesses identifying faces from their own race.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the concept of unconscious transference refer to?

    <p>Misidentifying a familiar face as a culprit.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the premise of the cognitive interview technique?

    <p>Witnesses should recreate the context of the crime to aid recall.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key criticism of the psychodynamic perspective?

    <p>It cannot be empirically tested.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which research finding indicates the limitations of eyewitness testimony?

    <p>Only a small percentage can accurately identify suspects during line-ups.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which concept is emphasized in phenomenological-humanistic perspectives?

    <p>Immediate conscious experiences influence behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does self-actualization refer to in the context of personality psychology?

    <p>Achieving the highest realization of human potential.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does self-verification influence self-concept?

    <p>It leads to selective attention to confirming information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main challenge in measuring self-actualization?

    <p>It requires subjective self-reports, making it difficult to measure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does congruence refer to in self-perception?

    <p>The consistency between self perceptions and experiences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are body-mind effects in the context of cognitive psychology?

    <p>The effect of holding objects on recognizing related stimuli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes mind-body effects?

    <p>Physical actions influence cognitive evaluations of objects.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a limitation of self-enhancement?

    <p>It may result in unrealistic self-assessments.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Helbig et al.'s study, what was primarily being measured?

    <p>The priming effects of observing actions on object recognition.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common issue with self-reports used in phenomenological-humanistic perspectives?

    <p>They are often influenced by social desirability bias.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes reconstructive memory?

    <p>The process of reconstructing memories with additional inferred details.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon describes the inability to notice changes in a visual scene?

    <p>Change blindness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the concept of weapon focus in eyewitness memory refer to?

    <p>Eyewitnesses recalling details of the weapon more than other aspects of the crime.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of long-term memory is primarily involved in remembering how to ride a bike?

    <p>Procedural memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the DRM paradigm, what were participants most likely to remember?

    <p>The critical lure that was not part of the original list.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do schemas play in memory according to Bartlett's research?

    <p>Schemas can cause memory distortions based on expectations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Brewer and Treyens' study, which type of objects were recalled more effectively by participants?

    <p>Objects that were consistent with participants' schemas.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What expectation is supported by the evidence from the body-mind effects study conducted by Witt & Brockmire?

    <p>Holding an object can bias the perception of related stimuli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'effort after meaning' in Bartlett's work refer to?

    <p>Participants actively striving to derive meaning from their learning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a core feature of embodied cognition?

    <p>Physical and mental activities influence one another.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three pillars of natural selection proposed by Darwin?

    <p>Competition, Variation, Heritability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mechanism of evolution involves changes in allele frequencies due to random sampling?

    <p>Genetic drift</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the evolutionary process that favors advantageous traits for reproduction?

    <p>Sexual selection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a principle of evolutionary psychology?

    <p>The brain is a physical system governed by natural selection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'biological fitness' refer to?

    <p>Number of copies of genes passed to the next generation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect defines the heritability of variation according to Darwin's theory?

    <p>Variation is passed from parents to offspring</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one function of sexual dimorphism in species?

    <p>Attracting mates for reproduction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of gene flow?

    <p>A population of birds moving to a new location and mating with another population</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Darwin and Wallace seek to explain regarding the emergence of new species?

    <p>The mechanisms behind natural selection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which principle suggests that most of the brain's operations happen outside of conscious awareness?

    <p>Unconscious processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does parental investment theory suggest about the sex that invests more in its offspring?

    <p>They will be more selective when choosing a mate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the cognitive revolution contribute to human evolution?

    <p>It enabled complex problem-solving and social interaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect do Gregor Mendel's findings relate to in genetics?

    <p>Organisms have two versions of each gene, one from each parent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hypothesis suggests that average faces are rated as more attractive than unique ones?

    <p>Averageness hypothesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes the relationship between evolution and human behavior?

    <p>Human behavior is shaped by evolutionary adaptations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of mate preferences, what do men generally value more than women?

    <p>Reproductive capacity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What behavioral tendency do females exhibit in species where males invest more in parental care?

    <p>They become more brightly colored.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do researchers mean by 'the mind is a set of information processing machines'?

    <p>The mind consists of modular systems designed for specific tasks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the MHC compatibility influence mate selection in humans?

    <p>Females prefer MHC-dissimilarity in potential partners.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one criticism of the evolutionary psychology approach to mate preferences?

    <p>It often ignores social and cultural influences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychological field focuses on individual differences and their impact on behavior?

    <p>Differential Psychology</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main objective of the evolutionary approach to mate preferences?

    <p>To link sex differences with parental investment strategies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What key difference distinguishes differential psychology from cognitive psychology?

    <p>Explores why some individuals vary in psychological traits.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of mate preferences tends to change with increased gender equality in societies?

    <p>Gender differences in mate preferences decline.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of personality does the id primarily represent?

    <p>Pleasure-seeking drives</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the ego in personality development?

    <p>To mediate between the id and reality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which defence mechanism involves pushing anxiety-arousing thoughts into the unconscious?

    <p>Repression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the phallic stage of psychosexual development according to Freud?

    <p>Awareness of sexual identity and Oedipal complex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does Freud’s concept of psychic energy influence personality?

    <p>It is a dynamic force motivated by instinctual drives.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age does the superego typically begin to develop?

    <p>By age 4-5</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Freud suggested that mental disorders result from conflict between which two areas of the mind?

    <p>Conscious and unconscious</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'fixation' refer to in Freud's psychosexual development theory?

    <p>A failure to successfully navigate a stage of development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following stages in Freud's theory focuses on pleasure from bodily control?

    <p>Anal stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Carl Jung propose regarding Freud’s emphasis on sexuality?

    <p>Jung thought motivational forces extended beyond sexual energy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes anxiety according to Freud's theory?

    <p>A conflict between desires and reality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What important role does the unconscious mind play in influencing behavior?

    <p>It shapes behaviors through repressed emotions and memories.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is considered the final stage of Freud's psychosexual development?

    <p>Genital stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are personality traits considered to be according to trait theories?

    <p>Stable characteristics that define individuality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is one of the five factors in McCrae and Costa's Five Factor Model?

    <p>Neuroticism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What methodology did Cattell use to identify his 16 personality factors?

    <p>Self-report questionnaires and peer ratings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do individualistic and collectivist cultures primarily differ in their approach to personality traits?

    <p>Collectivist cultures focus on individual choices</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement correctly describes personality stability?

    <p>Stability of personality increases with age</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common limitation of personality scales in assessment?

    <p>Participants may not provide honest answers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one criticism of trait theories of personality?

    <p>They do not account for personality change over a lifetime</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to research, what percentage of variation in the Big Five personality traits is attributed to genetic differences?

    <p>40%-50%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one trait in which women generally score higher than men?

    <p>Neuroticism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a recognized limitation of using interviews in personality assessment?

    <p>They lack ability to observe actual behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do factor analytical approaches to personality help researchers identify?

    <p>Clusters of correlated personal characteristics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of personality is least supported by cross-cultural research?

    <p>Openness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the primary functions of personality according to the phenomenological-humanistic perspective?

    <p>To establish a person's identity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a significant observation regarding the psychological state of participants in Milgram's experiment?

    <p>Many participants showed signs of stress despite their actions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In one variation of Milgram's experiment, how did the physical proximity of the learner affect obedience?

    <p>Obedience decreased as the learner was placed in the same room.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What impact did the legitimacy of the authority figure have on participants' obedience in Milgram's study?

    <p>Participants felt more compelled to obey when the authority was physically present.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of the experimental procedure was specifically designed to conceal the true nature of the Milgram study?

    <p>Participants were not informed they would be administering shocks.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of the results regarding the average maximum voltage administered by participants?

    <p>The average maximum shock was around 368 volts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor did not significantly alter the obedience levels according to Milgram's findings?

    <p>The perceived moral implications of giving shocks.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which version of Milgram's experiment had the lowest rate of obedience?

    <p>When the experimenter issued orders over the telephone.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is most likely to reduce conformity during an experimental task?

    <p>Presence of a rebellious model</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the implication of Reicher et al.'s concept of 'engaged followership'?

    <p>Participants' willingness to comply depends on perceiving the task as virtuous.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of participants in Burger's study chose to continue administering shocks after the 150-volt mark?

    <p>70%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did Milgram initially plan to trick participants in his experiment?

    <p>By suggesting that punishment enhances learning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What ethical concern arises from Milgram's study regarding participants?

    <p>Participants experienced high levels of anxiety and emotional distress.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What differentiates Burger's replication of Milgram's study from the original?

    <p>The stopping point at or before 150 volts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant psychological reaction did Slater et al. (2006) measure in participants during virtual reality studies?

    <p>Skin conductance levels indicating emotional distress.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a key criticism of the laboratory research methods used in Milgram's study?

    <p>They lacked ecological validity and real-world relevance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Gonzalez-Franco et al. (2018) find regarding participants' thoughts while administering shocks in a VR setting?

    <p>Participants emphasized the correct answers more when a learner was present.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Milgram want to explore through his experiments?

    <p>The relationship between authority and individual conscience.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a central characteristic of social norms according to the content?

    <p>They prescribe how individuals should behave.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do group norms typically emerge according to the studies mentioned?

    <p>From the interactions among group members.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Sherif's study contribute to the understanding of conformity?

    <p>It showed that judgments can change due to exposure to others’ opinions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Asch's line judgment task, what percentage of participants did not make any errors?

    <p>25%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'informational influence' refer to in the context of social influence?

    <p>Influence that occurs from others providing accurate information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What outcome was observed when individuals judged the movement of the light in Sherif's study after group discussion?

    <p>A common group norm was established.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the Galvanic skin response measurements in the icy water study reflect social influence?

    <p>Responses were significantly lower when reassured by in-group members.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'referent informational influence' imply in contemporary research?

    <p>Conformity based on expectations from fellow group members.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What cognitive ability do infants fail to grasp during the sensorimotor stage?

    <p>Object permanence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect did laughter from in-group members have on participants in Platow's comedy study?

    <p>Participants laughed and smiled more than when with out-group members.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor influences an individual's trust towards in-group members more than out-group members?

    <p>Expectations to agree</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a significant conclusion drawn from Asch's experiments regarding conformity?

    <p>Objective reality holds no sway over conformity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of social psychology did Allport emphasize in his 1924 observation?

    <p>Social phenomena cannot be examined individually.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key process through which group norms form and change?

    <p>Public compliance mechanisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the findings of Platow et al. reveal about group influence in stressful situations?

    <p>In-group advice decreases anxiety and increases participant confidence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary consequence of exposure to teratogens during pregnancy?

    <p>Adverse developmental effects on the child</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a critical finding from both Sherif's and Asch's studies?

    <p>Group norms can persist even after group interactions cease.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stage of Piaget's cognitive development theory is characterized by the absence of object permanence?

    <p>Sensorimotor stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What age range typically marks the onset of myelination and synaptogenesis in infants?

    <p>0-2 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the A-not-B error in infant development?

    <p>Persisting in a response even when it is incorrect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'public compliance' refer to in group dynamics?

    <p>Agreement with group expectations without internal belief change</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the significant consequences for children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD)?

    <p>Higher rates of substance dependence in adulthood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which form of support does Vygotsky emphasize as crucial for a child's learning?

    <p>Verbal guidance from caregivers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by 'neural plasticity' in the context of brain development?

    <p>The brain's ability to form and maintain synapses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age do children typically begin to show cognitive reasoning abilities according to Piaget’s theory?

    <p>12 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does prosopagnosia specifically impair?

    <p>Face recognition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cognitive model suggests there is a process devoted exclusively to face recognition?

    <p>Specialized cognitive process model</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does embodied cognition differ from traditional cognition?

    <p>It links cognition to sensory and motor experiences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the inversion effect in face recognition?

    <p>It highlights the importance of configural information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the concept of 'mental simulation' in embodied cognition involve?

    <p>Activating sensory experiences related to an action or object.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do children typically demonstrate in the violation of expectation task by age 2.5?

    <p>They look longer at non-matching trials.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of executive functions is primarily involved in adjusting to new demands or changing perspectives?

    <p>Shifting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant criticism of classic false belief tasks?

    <p>They may be too complicated for some children.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age do children typically pass the standard false belief task?

    <p>4 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following tasks demonstrates implicit theory of mind understanding in infants?

    <p>Violation of expectation task</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which function is primarily associated with inhibition in executive functions?

    <p>Ignoring distractions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What understanding do children develop by observing an unexpected switch in the Unexpected Content task?

    <p>That others can be mistaken about unseen information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect does the A not B error demonstrate in the development of infants?

    <p>Preservative reaching behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of measures do researchers use to assess implicit theory of mind in infants?

    <p>Looking time measures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of executive function is primarily engaged in holding information in mind to follow an argument?

    <p>Working memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structure in the eye provides the greatest visual acuity?

    <p>Fovea</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of photoreceptors is responsible for color perception under bright light conditions?

    <p>Cones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which depth perception cue involves understanding size relative to known objects?

    <p>Relative size</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process of interpreting sensory information into meaningful experiences known as?

    <p>Perception</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary emphasis of Vygotsky's theory in child development?

    <p>Interactions with other people</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age do children typically begin to understand object permanence?

    <p>5 months</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'size constancy' refer to in visual perception?

    <p>Perceiving consistent size despite changes in distance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which phenomenon describes the difficulty in recognizing the configuration of an inverted face?

    <p>Inversion effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the contact principle state about inanimate objects?

    <p>They act on each other only through contact</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of facial expressions in human communication?

    <p>To indicate emotions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes 'motionese'?

    <p>Adapted communication by adults towards infants</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the ability to understand the mental states of oneself and others?

    <p>Theory of mind</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the face recognition model proposed by Bruce and Young, what do Face Recognition Units (FRUs) primarily do?

    <p>Recognize faces as familiar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which age range typically marks the beginning of systematic reasoning in children?

    <p>3-4 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of cognitive processing in relation to depth perception?

    <p>To recover size and depth from a 2D retinal image</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Baillargeon et al. (1985) conclude about infants and their expectations?

    <p>Infants show expectations based on the contact principle as early as four months</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age do children typically begin to pass the false belief task?

    <p>4-5 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cognitive skills are included in the definition of executive functions?

    <p>Attention, planning, and self-monitoring</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does Piaget's view of infant development compare to more recent understandings?

    <p>Recent views suggest infants have more complex capabilities than Piaget suggested</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a defining feature of executive functions?

    <p>Understanding beliefs of others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is the theory of mind an important cognitive skill?

    <p>It allows understanding of social interactions and behaviors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which developmental aspect did Piaget's 3 mountains task investigate?

    <p>Children's understanding of different perspectives</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which concept explains the difference in ability to learn tasks with or without assistance?

    <p>Scaffolding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what stage do children begin to understand that objects exist independently of themselves?

    <p>Sensorimotor stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the cognitive inability of children to understand perspectives other than their own?

    <p>Egocentrism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a notable characteristic of infants' imitation abilities?

    <p>They have a biological capacity for imitation at birth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which task is used to demonstrate a child's inability to recognize different perspectives?

    <p>Three mountain task</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is required to pass the conservation task according to Piaget?

    <p>Ability to perform logical operations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which stage do children begin to employ abstract reasoning?

    <p>Formal operational stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does Piaget view the process of learning in children?

    <p>As an active construction of understanding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which developmental psychologist placed significant emphasis on the role of social interactions in learning?

    <p>Lev Vygotsky</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept represents the difference between what a child can achieve independently and with help?

    <p>Zone of proximal development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key criticism of Piaget's theories regarding cognitive development?

    <p>Neglect of social factors in learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What cognitive limitation is commonly observed in children during the pre-operational stage?

    <p>Bias by appearance in judgments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the potato and fuel experiment in Piaget's theory?

    <p>Highlights the use of hypothetical reasoning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does social referencing help children determine?

    <p>Appropriate responses to situations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of Piaget's main arguments about the cognitive development of children?

    <p>Children develop in stages that are universal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Piaget observe about children's mistakes in his studies?

    <p>Similar mistakes occur at certain developmental ages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT one of the three main components of executive functions?

    <p>Fluid intelligence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of ASD, what does the term 'perseveration' primarily refer to?

    <p>Repetitive patterns of behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What major function does the frontal lobe of the brain control?

    <p>Impulse control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method has been found useful for detecting cognitive function in vegetative state patients?

    <p>FMRI</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What neurological structures are believed to underpin the ability to understand others' actions and imitate them?

    <p>Mirror neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of tasks reveal the executive function deficits in children with ASD?

    <p>Classic false belief tasks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the right hemisphere of the brain primarily function?

    <p>Spatial reasoning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant feature of executive functions in the context of behavioral tasks?

    <p>They allow goal setting and resist distractions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of disorder is primarily characterized by impairments in social skills and behavior restrictions?

    <p>Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What brain imaging technique measures brain activity in real-time?

    <p>EEG</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is identified as an emotional response task in executive functions?

    <p>Hot tasks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition is characterized by damage to the brain stem, where the individual is aware but unable to respond?

    <p>Locked-in syndrome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term refers to the ability to predict another person's intentions based on their gaze?

    <p>Gaze direction interpretation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is primarily responsible for auditory processing?

    <p>Temporal lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the collective term that includes the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus?

    <p>Basal ganglia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the nervous system is primarily responsible for emotional responses during stress?

    <p>Autonomic nervous system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Following damage to the frontal lobe, which of the following behavioral changes might occur?

    <p>Irreverence and impatience</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the amygdala in the brain?

    <p>Fear conditioning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is primarily involved in mood regulation and is often linked with depression?

    <p>Serotonin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which pathway in the dopamine system is primarily involved in voluntary movement?

    <p>Nigrostriatal pathway</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect do agonist drugs have on neurotransmitter activity?

    <p>Facilitate neurotransmitter action</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following categories do opiates belong to?

    <p>Depressants</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which DSM-5 criterion for substance use disorders involves impairments in social or interpersonal functioning?

    <p>Social/interpersonal problems related to use</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to a neuron's charge during depolarization?

    <p>A brief change to a positive charge occurs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do sensory receptors do in the process of sensation?

    <p>Receive physical energy from stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In terms of drug-induced tolerance, which of the following best describes the mechanism that occurs?

    <p>Decreased responsiveness at the site of action</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes the role of the limbic system in emotional processing?

    <p>Production of emotional responses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the function of axon terminals in a neuron?

    <p>Serves as synaptic sites for signal transmission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is NOT one of the mechanisms of biological evolution?

    <p>Environmental adaptation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a key aspect of Darwin's theory of natural selection?

    <p>Exponential population growth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept explains why some species exhibit traits that appear unnecessary for survival?

    <p>Sexual selection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do genes play in the evolution of species?

    <p>They influence both physical and physiological traits.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of evolutionary psychology, which principle describes our brains as systems influenced by natural selection?

    <p>Natural design principle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor contributes to genetic variation in populations?

    <p>Sexual reproduction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect does evolutionary psychology primarily focus on?

    <p>Understanding human mental design</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT one of the five principles of evolutionary psychology?

    <p>Behavior is always conscious</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one function of the heritability principle in natural selection?

    <p>Allows advantageous variations to be passed on</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What explains the theoretical underpinnings of human cognition and behavior from an evolutionary perspective?

    <p>Evolutionary psychology</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do scientists consider genetic drift a mechanism of evolution?

    <p>It results from random changes in allele frequencies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'selfish gene' imply in biological evolution?

    <p>Genes are seen as units that promote their own transmission.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do different neural circuits relate to evolutionary problems according to evolutionary psychology?

    <p>Some are specialized for specific tasks.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does anxiety have on eyewitness accuracy during encoding?

    <p>Anxiety generally reduces accuracy of identification.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a method to improve eyewitness identification?

    <p>Conducting sequential lineups.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has been demonstrated about blocks of misleading information during interviews with children?

    <p>They can increase errors in recall.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the parental investment theory suggest about the mate selection process?

    <p>The sex that invests more will be more selective.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'source misattribution error' refer to?

    <p>Failing to recognize the source of a memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Loftus & Palmer (1974) find regarding eyewitness testimony?

    <p>Misinformation can easily alter eyewitness recollections.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hypothesis explains why average-looking individuals are often rated as more attractive?

    <p>They are associated with fewer risks.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements regarding false memories is accurate?

    <p>Approximately 25% of participants can exhibit false memories when prompted.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of mate preferences, what do males typically value more than females?

    <p>Reproductive capacity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did David Buss's research reveal about sex differences in mate preferences?

    <p>Females prioritize resource acquisition more than males.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the research by Schwabe & Wolf (2010) primarily investigate?

    <p>The impact of stress on memory encoding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) influence mate choice in humans?

    <p>A preference for MHC-dissimilarity enhances immune response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following improves the accuracy of eyewitness testimony when recalling an event?

    <p>Encouraging the witness to recall the event backward.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a notable effect of the wording of questions on eyewitness recall?

    <p>Different wording can change the reported frequency of events.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant criticism of the evolutionary psychology approach to mate preferences?

    <p>It heavily relies on biased samples and social desirability.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to differential psychology, what primarily distinguishes psychological traits from psychological states?

    <p>Traits are relatively stable across time while states change.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is associated with increased susceptibility to misattribution errors in eyewitness testimony?

    <p>The passage of time since the event occurred.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does social structure play in differences between evolutionary and social psychology regarding mate preferences?

    <p>It emphasizes the influence of culture on mating behaviors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Thompson et al. (1977) find about children's reports during interviews?

    <p>Interviewer questioning can influence children's recall.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the Innocence Project advocate for in terms of eyewitness identification methods?

    <p>Using blind or computer-assisted lineups.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one area that differential psychology studies compared to cognitive psychology?

    <p>Variances in individual memory capacity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of schemas in eyewitness memory according to schema theory?

    <p>Schemas filter and influence the encoding of information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which environmental factors contribute to the mismatch between modern diets and those of the Environment of Evolutionary Adaptiveness?

    <p>Factory farmed meats and abundant sugar sources</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by 'inter-sexual selection' in the context of sexual selection?

    <p>Selection based on traits preferred by the opposite sex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is a common criticism of evolutionary psychology?

    <p>It makes unfalsifiable predictions about human behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the developmental perspective in comparative evolutionary psychology primarily focus on?

    <p>The timing of trait emergence and its dependence on learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the role of aggression according to evolutionary psychology?

    <p>It is a context-sensitive solution to adaptive social problems.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the concept of the 'Environment of Evolutionary Adaptiveness' (EEA) signify?

    <p>The conditions under which humans evolved specific social behaviors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which explanation is aligned with the parasite theory regarding sexual selection?

    <p>Physical traits can signal genetic fitness and immune strength.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main focus of comparative evolutionary psychology?

    <p>Making evolutionary inferences by comparing different species.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following predictions regarding aggression is related to evolutionary psychology?

    <p>Aggression can deter future aggression from rivals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of human behavior does the cultural intelligence hypothesis emphasize?

    <p>The role of cultural learning in developing social cognition.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does holding an object have on perception according to body-mind effects?

    <p>It alters the difficulty of perceiving stimuli associated with that object.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the study on mind-body effects, what grip was associated with the natural/small object?

    <p>Precision grip</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of the concept of embodied cognition?

    <p>Cognition is grounded in sensory and motor systems.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of memory is concerned with skills and motor activities?

    <p>Procedural memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary criticism of the psychodynamic perspective on personality?

    <p>It has a cultural and gender bias.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What schema-related effect did Brewer and Treyens (1981) observe in their study?

    <p>Higher recall and recognition of schema consistent objects.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the concept of self-actualization according to Carl Rogers?

    <p>The highest realization of human potential.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon occurs when people miss objects in plain sight due to attentional limits?

    <p>Inattentional blindness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the DRM paradigm, what is the critical lure?

    <p>A word that was not seen but remembered.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does incongruence refer to in the context of self-perception?

    <p>Discrepancy between self-perceptions and experiences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the key ideas in Bartlett's research regarding memory?

    <p>Memory involves reconstructive processes influenced by meaning and organization.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of phenomenological-humanistic perspectives contrasts with psychodynamic approaches?

    <p>Emphasis on immediate conscious experience.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a limitation of self-actualization as a concept in personality psychology?

    <p>It relies heavily on subjective self-reports.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What tends to happen when eyewitnesses focus on a weapon during an event?

    <p>They experience weapon focus, hindering memory of other details.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition in Helbig et al.'s study demonstrated a priming effect?

    <p>Congruent vs incongruent action-object conditions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do self-verification and self-enhancement have in common?

    <p>Both relate to how individuals view their traits.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between episodic and semantic memory?

    <p>Episodic memory is tied to experiences; semantic is about facts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about the self-concept is accurate?

    <p>Congruence reflects aligned self-perceptions and experiences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant challenge in empirically testing the humanistic perspective?

    <p>The reliance on philosophical rather than scientific concepts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What impact does schema have on memory recall according to Bartlett's assertions?

    <p>Schemas can distort memory through expectations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the predictions regarding action observation, what should observed actions activate?

    <p>Sensory and motor representations associated with the action.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the id play in Freud's theory of personality?

    <p>It seeks immediate gratification.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the ego according to Freud?

    <p>To control impulsive desires of the id.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychosexual stage focuses on pleasure from the process of elimination?

    <p>Anal stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the superego primarily represent in Freud's theory?

    <p>Moral standards.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does Freud describe the unconscious mind's influence on behavior?

    <p>It drives behavior through repressed memories.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which defense mechanism involves redirecting dangerous impulses to a safer target?

    <p>Displacement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can fixation during the psychosexual stages lead to?

    <p>Specific personality types in adulthood.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the phallic stage of psychosexual development, which conflict must boys resolve?

    <p>Holding sexual feelings toward their mothers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What analogy is used to describe the interaction between the id, ego, and superego?

    <p>A continuous battle.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What typically occurs if a child faces excessive stress during development?

    <p>Regression to an earlier psychosexual stage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Freud, how does anxiety relate to the ego?

    <p>It signals the ego to confront impulses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do Carl Jung's perspectives differ from Freud's on motivation?

    <p>He viewed motivational forces as more general rather than solely sexual.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers the use of defense mechanisms according to Freud?

    <p>Conflict between conscious and unconscious thoughts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is NOT part of the Big Five personality traits?

    <p>Assertiveness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main aim of trait theories in personality psychology?

    <p>To classify personality characteristics into basic dimensions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which personality assessment method involves direct observation of behavior?

    <p>Behavioral observations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'heredity' imply in the context of personality differences?

    <p>Genetic makeup contributes to personality variations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Five Factor Model, which of the following facets relates to Conscientiousness?

    <p>Self-discipline</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cultural perspective emphasizes the decisions and choices of groups over individuals?

    <p>Collectivist cultures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which personality trait is suggested to show the least variation across cultures according to the Big Five model?

    <p>Agreeableness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Eysenck's extraversion-stability model suggest about personality traits?

    <p>Two basic dimensions account for personality differences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major criticism of trait theories of personality?

    <p>They ignore the influence of situational factors on behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way does personality stability increase with age?

    <p>It tends to be less influenced by situational factors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is likely true about gender differences in personality traits?

    <p>Women show greater Agreeableness than men.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the focus of psychometric assessments in personality psychology?

    <p>Developing reliable and valid measures of traits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do cultural influences generally affect personality traits?

    <p>They shape how traits are perceived and expressed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statistical method is primarily used in trait theories to understand personality?

    <p>Factor analysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Milgram's Obedience Study

    • Influences: My Lai massacre (1969), Vietnam War, Adolf Eichmann
    • Aim: To study obedience without threat, maintained by authority's repetition of control.
    • Procedure: Advertised "learning and memory" study; participants assigned "teacher" or "learner" role; teacher (participant) administered shocks to learner (confederate) for errors; experimenter encouraged teacher to continue despite learner distress.
    • Results: 62.5% continued to highest shock level; average maximum shock was 368 volts.
    • Variations:
      • Proximity of learner: Pounding on wall, heard crying/shouting (heavy increase in disobedience)
        • Same room (disobedience), force onto plate (disobedience)
      • Proximity of authority: Orders over phone, 21% obeyed to maximum
      • Location: Different locations affected obedience (hotel lower than basement).
    • Interpretations: Participants not psychopaths; likely related to social environment not personality traits; gradual increments, and the perceived legitimacy of authority, and confidence plays an important role in obedience rates.
    • Explanations (Agentic state): Participants may have viewed themselves as instruments of the experimenter, with minimized responsibility
    • Explanations (Active identification): Participants actively identified with the experimenter's mission, making obedience appear virtuous.

    Reicher, Haslam & Smith (2012)

    • Argument: Obedience is active identification, not unthinking obedience.
    • Research: Conducted variants of Milgram's study, measuring participants' identification with the experimenter and learner to explain obedience variances.
    • Findings: Identification with experimenter predicted obedience levels.

    Burger (2009) Replication

    • Ethics: Ethically replicated Milgram's study up to 150 volts.
    • Procedure: Stopped at 150V, but did infer how participants may act above this.
    • Results: Compared results with Milgram's baseline numbers to estimate continued obedience rates beyond 150 volts.

    Slater et al (2006) & Gonzalez-Franco et al (2018)

    • Virtual Reality (VR): Explored obedience via VR; learners' fate and action awareness affects obedience in VR.
    • Findings: Participants concerned about learner, demonstrated concern.

    Criticisms of Milgram's Study

    • Laboratory setting: Low ecological validity, as participants may behave differently in different environments.
    • Deception: Participants were deceived; ethical considerations.
    • Ethics: Importance of informed consent and participant rights to withdraw.

    Sherif (1935): Norm Formation

    • Study: Group norms emerge from interaction, impacting judgment and providing a shared reality.
    • Procedure: Used the autokinetic effect (illusory movement of a light) and had participants estimate movement. One condition was alone, later in a group. The second condition had participants initially in a group then alone.
    • Results: Showed conformity in a group where shared judgment developed into a norm. Shared judgment persisted even when participants were alone.
    • Implications: Conformity as a product of information sharing, forming frames of reference.

    Asch (1951) Conformity Study

    • Aim: To show conformity despite objective reality.
    • Procedure: Line judgment task; stooges incorrectly answered. Participants later made judgments.
    • Results: 37% of participants conformed incorrectly with the group; influenced by social norms;

    Deutsch and Gerrard (1955) Dual-Process Theory

    • Integration: Combined Sherif's and Asch's studies, explaining informational and normative influences.

    Contemporary Research

    • Turner (1991): Groups crucial for self-definition
    • Platow et al (2005): Laughter conformity (in-group vs out-group); individuals adopt behaviour consistent with in-group members
    • Group norms: Socially shared ways of viewing the world; pre-emptive in our actions, behaviour.

    Development Psychology

    • Debates: Stability vs. change, continuity vs. discontinuity, nature vs. nurture, critical vs. sensitive periods.
    • Aims: Understanding how mental abilities develop throughout childhood, and using that to understand clinical conditions.

    Infant Development

    • Brain development: Brain structure similar at birth, but smaller; continuous myelination and synaptogenesis until ~2 years.
    • Neural plasticity: Decreases with age.
    • Teratogens: Substances causing atypical development prenatally. Includes environmental examples like air pollution and exposure to PVC elements.
    • Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD): Prenatal exposure to alcohol leads to various impairments.

    Piaget's Stages of Development

    • Constructivism: Active construction of understanding, not passive absorption.
    • Stages: Sensorimotor (0-2 years, object permanence), Preoperational (2-7 years, egocentrism), Concrete Operational (7-12 years, operations), Formal Operational (12 years-adult, abstract reasoning).
    • Criticisms: Limited tasks that have limited measures for the skill; tended to underestimate infants' abilities.

    Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

    • Social constructivism: Learning occurs through interactions with others.
    • Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Difference between what a child can do alone and what they can do with guidance.

    Theory of Mind

    • Development: Infants recognize others' perspectives by age one. Children typically pass classic tests around 4 years old, but implicit measures suggest earlier understanding.
    • False belief tasks: Assessments of understanding that others may hold beliefs different than one's self.
    • Violation-of-expectation tasks: Longer looking times indicate awareness of false beliefs.

    Executive Functions

    • Components: Inhibition (self-control), working memory, shifting (mental flexibility).
    • Development: Develop over time, important in managing thoughts, emotions, and actions.
    • Marshmallow test: An example of delaying gratification as a component of executive functions.

    Autism Spectrum Disorder

    • Impairments: Social skills, communication, repetitive behaviours; often impacted by theory of mind, executive functions, and imitation; possibly with mirror neuron dysfunction.

    Biological Psychology

    • Techniques: Neuroimaging (e.g., fMRI, EEG), observations of brain injuries, animal dissection, microscopic examination.
    • Neuroimaging techniques: Measure brain structure (CT, MRI) and function (EEG, PET, fMRI, MEG, TMS).
    • Brain disorders: Coma, vegetative state, locked-in syndrome (difficulty establishing mental awareness from behavioural measures).
    • EEG in vegetative patients: May reveal preserved brain networks.

    Brain Anatomy

    • Cerebral cortex: Frontal (motor, speech), parietal (sensory), temporal (language, memory), occipital (visual).
    • Lateralisation: Left hemisphere (language, computation), right hemisphere (spatial reasoning, faces).
    • Contralateral organisation: Information processing is contralateral.

    Sensation and Perception

    • Process: Stimulus to receptor cells, to brain.
    • Role: Selecting relevant information from sensory experience.
    • Visual systems: Specific areas of the brain process different aspects.
    • Visual perception: Cones (color), Rods (low light); depth from 2D retinal image.
    • Gestalt principles: Integrating pieces of information, organized wholes.
    • Perception and depth, size constancy: Depth perception involves our knowledge and assumptions.
    • Face preferences: Infants and children prefer face-like stimuli; face recognition and processing are holistic and unique compared to other objects. Holistic.

    Embodied Cognition

    • Assumption: Cognition grounded in sensory-motor systems; no separate mental representations.
    • Mind-body interactions: Experiencing an object activates sensory and motor representations.
    • Action observation: Observing actions activates related sensory and motor representations.

    Memory

    • Reconstructive memory: Memory is an active reconstruction; inferences during encoding and retrieval affect recall.
    • Schemas: Existing knowledge structures guide encoding and retrieval.
    • **Eyewitness testimony: ** Fragile, easily distorted, susceptibility to misinformation and influence; weapon focus effect or suggestibility.
    • Cognitive interview: Technique used with eyewitness testimony to enhance memory accuracy.

    Evolutionary Psychology

    • Natural selection: Changes over time, characteristics have purpose.
    • Mechanisms of evolution: Natural selection, sexual selection, genetic drift, gene flow, mutation.
    • Environment of evolutionary adaptedness (EEA): The ancestral environment to which selection pressures were applied.
    • Evolutionary psychology (EP): Explaining the human mind in terms of adaption to ancestral environments
    • Criticisms: Difficulty testing hypotheses about the EEA; issues for interpretation.
    • Comparative evolutionary psychology: Comparisons with other species, cultures to help establish generality, as well as to help unravel innate from learned aspects.

    Individual Differences and Personality

    • Differential psychology: Study of individual differences in thoughts, feelings, behaviours, and the reasons.
    • Personality: Enduring patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving.
    • Psychodynamic perspectives (Freud): Unconscious conflicts, defense mechanisms, psychosexual stages.
    • Phenomenological-humanistic perspectives: Conscious experience, self-actualization, self-concept, and congruence - incongruence.
    • Trait theories: Identifying basic traits (Big Five).
    • Factor analytical approaches: Statistical techniques for identifying clusters of personality traits.
    • Culture and personality: Cultural influences impact personality expressions (individualism vs. collectivism); Big Five dimensions appear universal but expressions/importance vary by culture.
    • Gender differences: Varied expression and importance of traits in men and women (often small-medium effects, may reflect social stereotypes).

    Personality Assessment

    • Methods: Interviews, behavioural observations, personality scales (questionnaires).
    • Reliability and validity: Essential for personality assessment procedures.

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    Description

    Explore the findings and implications of Milgram's obedience study, which investigated how individuals respond to authority figures in extreme situations. The quiz examines key aspects such as the study's procedure, results, variations, and interpretations on obedience behavior. Test your knowledge of the experiments that reveal the darker side of human nature in response to authority.

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