Milgram's Obedience Study Overview
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Questions and Answers

What was the primary aim of Milgram's study?

  • To understand the conditions under which people obey authority (correct)
  • To test the impact of vocal instructions on compliance
  • To analyze the psychological effects of punishment on learning
  • To investigate how social beliefs affect obedience

    • What percentage of participants in Milgram's original study were willing to administer the highest voltage?

  • 82.5%
  • 50%
  • 70%
  • 65% (correct)

    • According to Reicher et al., what primarily influences obedience in participants?

  • The promise of monetary rewards for participation
  • Their identification with the experimenter's mission (correct)
  • The level of pressure from the authority figure
  • The physical presence of the learner

    • What does Burgers' ethical consideration focus on in relation to Milgram's study?

    <p>The importance of stopping at or before 150 volts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method did Slater et al. (2006) use to study obedience in a virtual environment?

    <p>Physiological reactions were measured during interactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Gonzalez-Franco et al. (2018) find about participants' focus in the presence of a 'learner'?

    <p>They emphasized the right answers more</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What criticism regarding Milgram's experiment raises concerns about ecological validity?

    <p>The laboratory conditions felt artificial and controlled</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Hofling et al. (1966) study in relation to obedience?

    <p>Nurses administering pain relief medication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of Milgram's methodology did Burger argue was ethically replicable?

    <p>The study conducted up to 150 volts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way does the phenomenon of 'engaged followership’ differ from blind obedience?

    <p>It reflects participants' approval of the authority figure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the main aim of Milgram's research?

    <p>To study obedience without threats from authority</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of participants in Milgram's study continued to the highest level of electric shock?

    <p>62.5%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Milgram's experiment, what was the role of the 'learner'?

    <p>To pretend to receive shocks but was actually a stooge</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the proximity of the learner affect the results of Milgram's experiment?

    <p>Closer proximity increased shock levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect influenced participants' willingness to administer shocks in Milgram's variations?

    <p>Location of the experimenter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What conclusion can be drawn about the participants in Milgram's study?

    <p>They experienced stress but continued due to situational factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does private acceptance in a group context usually depend on?

    <p>Desire to be liked and accepted</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one consequence of exposure to teratogens during pregnancy?

    <p>Atypical development in the child</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by the 'agentic state' in the context of Milgram's findings?

    <p>Seeing oneself as an extension of the authority figure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a significant result of having the experimenter called away during the experiment?

    <p>Only 20% continued to the maximum shock level</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which developmental theory did Jean Piaget formulate?

    <p>Cognitive development theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one key cognitive ability that children do not understand in the sensorimotor stage?

    <p>Object permanence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the phenomenon where infants continue to reach for a previously hidden object despite it being moved?

    <p>Perseveration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age does an infant's brain reach approximately 50% of an adult's size?

    <p>6 months old</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor increases the need for conformity in an individual within a group?

    <p>Surveillance by others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one predictive factor influencing the development of cognitive and behavioral impairments in children with FASD?

    <p>Exposure to teratogens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ability of the brain to form and maintain synapses is known as what?

    <p>Neural plasticity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which developmental psychologist is known for his stage theory of cognitive development?

    <p>Jean Piaget</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process continues in the brain until about 2 years of age?

    <p>Myelination and synaptogenesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can negatively affect brain development before birth?

    <p>Teratogens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common developmental debate regarding whether abilities change over time?

    <p>Stability vs. change</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following cognitive abilities develops last according to Piaget's stages?

    <p>Formal operational thinking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of executive functions in behavior?

    <p>To perform voluntary behavior effectively</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a significant characteristic of children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD)?

    <p>Impaired theory of mind abilities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is considered an example of perseveration in infancy?

    <p>The a not b error</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of mirror neurons as it relates to autism spectrum disorders?

    <p>They are critical for understanding the intentions of others.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of examining brain activity, what does EEG measure?

    <p>Electrical activity in the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain region is primarily responsible for auditory perception and memory?

    <p>Temporal lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'contralateral organisation' refer to in brain function?

    <p>Each hemisphere governing the opposite side of the body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common finding in the brain activity of vegetative patients?

    <p>Preserved brain networks similar to healthy individuals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do children with ASD typically perform on false belief tasks?

    <p>They perform significantly worse</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neuroimaging technique is primarily used to measure brain structure?

    <p>CT scan</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the corpus callosum?

    <p>To connect the two hemispheres of the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are executive function components typically identified in children?

    <p>Inhibition, working memory, shifting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes locked-in syndrome?

    <p>Awake and aware but unable to communicate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is essential for an authority figure to influence others effectively?

    <p>Creating a positive relationship</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do social norms primarily provide?

    <p>Structure for behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Sherif's (1935) study reveal about group norms?

    <p>Judgments can be influenced through information-sharing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Asch's study, what was the primary measure of influence?

    <p>The number of errors made</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of influence was demonstrated by Sherif's study according to Deutsch and Gerrard's dual process theory?

    <p>Informational influence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a significant finding in Platow et al's (2005) research regarding laughter?

    <p>Participants laughed more due to in-group behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Platow et al. find about the impact of reassurance on pain perception?

    <p>In-group reassurance significantly lessens pain anxiety.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Turner (1991), how do individuals identify with groups?

    <p>Through trust in others in the group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the overall error rate in Asch's conformity experiments?

    <p>37%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did group membership affect participant responses in the icy water experiment conducted by Platow et al.?

    <p>In-group participants felt less pain due to group identification.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of the main conclusions of Sherif's study regarding group judgment?

    <p>Individuals are often unaware of being influenced by group norms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does referent informational influence involve according to contemporary research?

    <p>Expectation to conform with fellow group members</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What core idea did Allport (1924) advocate regarding social behavior?

    <p>Understanding individuals helps explain group behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way did Asch aim to demonstrate the nature of objective reality in his studies?

    <p>By demonstrating unavoidable conformity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the pre-operational stage of cognitive development?

    <p>Children experience egocentrism and have difficulty seeing things from other perspectives.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which task demonstrates a child's inability to recognize different perspectives?

    <p>Three mountain task</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

    <p>Children construct their understanding through a series of stages.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept refers to a child's understanding that the appearance of an object does not change its fundamental properties?

    <p>Conservation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stage of development is characterized by children's ability to think systematically about concrete, real-life problems?

    <p>Concrete operational stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant criticism of Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

    <p>He did not consider the diversity of children's experiences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)?

    <p>The difference between what a child can do alone and with help.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way does social constructivism differ from Piaget's view of cognitive development?

    <p>It highlights the role of social interactions in knowledge construction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Piaget suggest about young children's capability for scientific reasoning?

    <p>They lack the ability for systematic reasoning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does egocentrism in children manifest during the pre-operational stage?

    <p>Children struggle to comprehend viewpoints that differ from their own.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which is a crucial element of Piaget's constructivism?

    <p>Knowledge is acquired through individual exploration.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which task provides insight into a child's understanding of object permanence?

    <p>Sensorimotor task</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What signifies a child's shift from egocentric logic to an objective understanding of the world?

    <p>Achieving conservation and operational thinking.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What fundamental belief unites both Piaget and Vygotsky regarding children's learning?

    <p>Children construct their own understanding of knowledge.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition is characterized by a severe impairment in recognizing faces while having relatively better object recognition?

    <p>Prosopagnosia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the inversion effect suggest about face recognition?

    <p>Facial recognition is less effective when faces are inverted.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of traditional cognition, how are representations of objects stored in the brain?

    <p>They are compartmentalized away from sensory and motor regions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key premise of embodied cognition regarding thinking about objects?

    <p>Cognition integrates sensory and motor experiences in activation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs when one part of the representation of an object is activated, according to the principles of embodied cognition?

    <p>Other components of that representation are also activated.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the fovea in the human eye?

    <p>Provide the most acuity in vision</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of photoreceptors in the retina are responsible for color perception?

    <p>Cones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is required for accurate depth perception from a 2D retinal image?

    <p>Cognitive processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following cues is NOT typically used for depth perception?

    <p>Motion sickness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason humans show a preference for faces?

    <p>They are important for communication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the inverted face effect?

    <p>Processing of configural information is disrupted by inversion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Bruce and Young's (1986) model of face recognition, what occurs first?

    <p>Structural encoding of the face</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best defines color constancy?

    <p>Consistent color perception under various light conditions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the outcome of Valenza et al (1996) regarding infants and face-like patterns?

    <p>Infants looked at face-like patterns longer than non-face patterns</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one way newborns demonstrate their understanding of facial expressions?

    <p>By being able to discriminate between different expressions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does theory of mind allow individuals to understand about others?

    <p>People may act based on beliefs that are true or false.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age do children typically pass the classic false belief task?

    <p>4 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main distinction between implicit and explicit theory of mind?

    <p>Explicit theory of mind requires conscious understanding of beliefs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which test suggests that children as young as 2.5 years may have an understanding of theory of mind?

    <p>Viability of expectation task</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of executive functions involves the ability to resist distraction?

    <p>Inhibition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What behavior do infants typically display in the A not B error?

    <p>Preservative reaching</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the unexpected content task, what do children expect the experimenter to believe?

    <p>The toys are where they last saw them.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the focus of social cognition?

    <p>Thinking about the behaviors and beliefs of other people.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the concept of 'theory of mind' primarily refer to?

    <p>The understanding of mental states of ourselves and others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary critique of Piaget's theory as indicated in the summaries?

    <p>It fails to acknowledge an infant's social capabilities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which executive function refers to the ability to adjust to new situations?

    <p>Cognitive flexibility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age do infants begin to display an understanding of object permanence?

    <p>5 months</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these describes a potential limitation of the classic false belief task?

    <p>It can be too complicated for young children.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the contact principle in developmental psychology?

    <p>Inanimate objects act upon each other only when they physically touch</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is 'motionese' and its significance in infant development?

    <p>An adaptive style of communication used by adults to engage infants</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best characterizes executive functions in children?

    <p>Cognitive abilities to control impulse and monitor actions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age do children typically begin to understand the false belief task as indicated by research?

    <p>4 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which developmental task reflects a child's ability to see from another person's perspective, as highlighted by Piaget's studies?

    <p>Three mountain task</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Baillargeon et al. conclude about infants' expectations at 4-5 months?

    <p>They looked longer at impossible events, indicating expectations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do social interactions influence a child's development according to Vygotsky?

    <p>They are crucial for developing social competence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes the relationship between conceptual understanding and procedural ability?

    <p>Procedural ability is often mistaken for conceptual understanding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which researcher(s) presented evidence that infants prefer face stimuli over scrambled or blank stimuli?

    <p>Johnson et al.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to research, at what age do infants begin to mimic gestures?

    <p>At birth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What developmental skill do children begin to demonstrate during their preschool years according to the content?

    <p>Systematic reasoning and social referencing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is NOT part of the basal ganglia?

    <p>Cerebellum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the amygdala play in emotional processing?

    <p>Fear conditioning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is primarily involved in muscle movement?

    <p>Acetylcholine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the neuron is responsible for receiving signals from other neurons?

    <p>Dendrites</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does myelination have on neurons?

    <p>Increases the speed of action potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which scenario would the sympathetic nervous system be primarily activated?

    <p>A traumatic event</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common issue associated with drug tolerance?

    <p>Diminished effects with repeated use</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What emotional change was observed in Phineas Gage after his accident?

    <p>Diminished emotional capacity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of drug is Valium categorized as?

    <p>Depressant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which is NOT a criterion for substance use disorders according to DSM-5?

    <p>Loneliness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What physiological response does the polygraph primarily measure?

    <p>Emotional arousal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following represents a major function of serotonin?

    <p>Emotional regulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which pathway is specifically associated with the dopamine system related to voluntary movement?

    <p>Nigrostriatal pathway</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process occurs when potassium ions exit a neuron?

    <p>Repolarization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant factor that influences eyewitness memory distortions after an event?

    <p>The time elapsed since the event</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following accurately describes the difference between familiarity and recollection?

    <p>Familiarity is based on prior experience, while recollection relies on details of an event.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does repeated testing have on children’s recall accuracy?

    <p>Increases accuracy if done correctly.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the tendency of eyewitnesses to misidentify a familiar but innocent person as the culprit?

    <p>Unconscious transference</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does research suggest about children as eyewitnesses?

    <p>Their cognitive abilities limit accurate recall.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the cause of the common fears that infants exhibit towards snakes and spiders?

    <p>They stem from adaptive responses to ancestral threats.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does wording in questions have on eyewitness testimony, according to Loftus & Zanni (1975)?

    <p>Certain words can significantly alter recall results.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key contributor to health problems in modern diets?

    <p>Cravings for energy-dense foods high in sugar and fat.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method is identified as a best practice for eyewitness identification?

    <p>Double blind administration.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Research has shown that eyewitness identification accuracy can be improved by warning witnesses that the suspect may not be present. What is the primary effect of this warning?

    <p>Focuses witnesses to scrutinize their memory more critically.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the concept of inter-sexual selection emphasize in the context of sexual selection?

    <p>Choice and preferences of individuals in the opposite sex.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following reflects a criticism of evolutionary psychology?

    <p>It often relies on untestable historical inferences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which study suggests that higher percentages of correct identifications occur in low anxiety or stress conditions?

    <p>Deffenbacher et al. (2004)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Innocence Project advocate as a necessary reform for eyewitness identification?

    <p>Recording procedures for accountability.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main focus of comparative evolutionary psychology?

    <p>Analyzing human behavior by comparing it with other species and cultures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which perspective is NOT part of the comparative approach in evolutionary psychology?

    <p>Personality perspective.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a reported outcome of using the cognitive interview technique with eyewitnesses?

    <p>It prompts witnesses to recall details from different perspectives.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the evolutionary adaptations that supported reproduction create problems in modern life?

    <p>They became irrelevant due to changes in environment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What benefit does sequential line-up presentation provide in eyewitness identification?

    <p>It reduces the likelihood of false identifications.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does increased social compliance in children affect their memory recall?

    <p>It creates more false memories.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of selection is described as competition within the same sex for access to mates?

    <p>Intra-sexual selection.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the concept of source misattribution error affect eyewitness testimonies?

    <p>It leads to incorrect contextual origins of memories.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the parasite theory in evolutionary psychology?

    <p>It highlights the relationship between physical traits and immunity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following characterizes co-opting resources from rivals as a reason for aggression?

    <p>It increases reproductive success.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theory explains that the sex which invests more in offspring will be more selective when choosing a mate?

    <p>Parental investment theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What preference do women show regarding MHC compatibility during their ovulation phase?

    <p>They prefer MHC-dissimilar males</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a proposed reason for theaverageness hypothesis in mate selection?

    <p>Average-looking people have fewer ‘risks’ associated with them</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is primarily studied in differential psychology?

    <p>Individual differences in psychological traits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of gender equality, how do mate preferences change as gender parity increases?

    <p>They decline</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about mating investment is true?

    <p>Mating investment includes time, energy, and sex cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do males generally value reproductive capacity more than females in mate preferences?

    <p>Due to greater parental investment from females</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a limitation of the evolutionary psychology (EP) approach regarding mate preferences?

    <p>It overemphasizes biological factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by 'social structure' in the context of psychological sex differences?

    <p>Cultural and situational influences on behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is a critical component of the parental investment theory?

    <p>Investment in offspring affects reproductive success</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do body-mind effects suggest regarding the manipulation of physical objects?

    <p>Holding an object influences how we perceive stimuli related to that object.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What prediction stems from the mind-body effects in perception?

    <p>Perceiving an object activates related handling information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a key finding in the study by Helbig et al. (2010) regarding action observation?

    <p>Action observation aids in recognizing objects related to the action.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between episodic and semantic memory in long-term memory?

    <p>Episodic memory is coherent episodes; semantic is general knowledge without context.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do schemas play in memory according to Bartlett's research?

    <p>Schemas can lead to memory distortions based on expectations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Mack and Rock (1998) illustrate about change blindness?

    <p>People can miss significant changes even when they are in plain sight.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the DRM paradigm in memory studies?

    <p>It illustrates how easily false memories can be formed through associative cues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does weapon focus affect eyewitness memory according to Loftus's findings?

    <p>Eyewitnesses may focus more on the weapon than on broader context.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does the presence of schema-consistent objects have on recall according to Brewer and Treyens (1981)?

    <p>Schema-consistent objects lead to higher false recall.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon does 'effort after meaning' described by Bartlett signify?

    <p>An active process where participants strive to derive meaning and organize information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of body-mind effects supports the relationship between actions and perception?

    <p>Handling objects can influence the perception of related stimuli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What key concept summarizes embodied cognition?

    <p>Cognition is reliant on sensory and motor systems.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the schema effect suggest about memory recall?

    <p>Expectations can distort memory recall based on existing schemas.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does attentional blindness relate to perceiving changes in our environment?

    <p>It causes us to overlook changes that we are not directly focusing on.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the ego in personality according to Freud?

    <p>To balance the desires of the id with reality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept describes the conflict between the desires of the id and the moral constraints of the superego?

    <p>Anxiety</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychosexual stage focuses on pleasure derived from elimination and toilet training?

    <p>Anal stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key outcome of fixation during the oral stage of psychosexual development?

    <p>Compulsive behavior regarding eating</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does denial function as a defense mechanism according to Freud?

    <p>By refusing to acknowledge painful memories</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true about the superego in Freud's theory?

    <p>It embodies moral standards from parents and society</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does psychic energy play in personality according to Freud?

    <p>It powers the dynamics of personality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the Oedipus complex?

    <p>A boy's attraction to his mother and rivalry with his father</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about Freud's psychosexual stages is accurate?

    <p>Fixation can lead to a variety of adult personality disorders</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'regression' mean in the context of psychosexual development?

    <p>Returning to an earlier, more childlike stage of personality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mental process is the unconscious mind primarily associated with?

    <p>Impulses and drives beyond awareness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What criticism did later psychologists have about Freud's theories?

    <p>They were too focused on environmental factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which way did Carl Jung's perspective differ from Freud's?

    <p>He believed in broader motivational forces beyond just sexuality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the nature of the relationship between the id, ego, and superego?

    <p>They engage in a constant struggle to balance desires and morals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What might a strong fixation from the anal stage of development lead to in adulthood?

    <p>Obsession with cleanliness and orderliness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the five factor model of personality primarily include?

    <p>Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following theories attempts to identify basic personality traits through factor analysis?

    <p>Cattell's 16 Personality Factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant limitation of trait theories of personality?

    <p>They may ignore situational factors that influence behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by the heritability of the Big Five personality traits?

    <p>The degree to which genetic differences account for variations in personality traits.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which context are traits found to be less predictive of behavior?

    <p>In collectivistic cultures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the impact of age on personality stability?

    <p>Stability increases with age.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the HEXACO model of personality primarily differ from the Big Five model?

    <p>It includes six dimensions instead of five.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these traits is typically associated with higher scores in women compared to men?

    <p>Agreeableness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What statistical technique is used to identify clusters of personal characteristics in personality theory?

    <p>Factor Analysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one benefit of using structured interviews in personality assessment?

    <p>They provide consistency across assessments.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor is emphasized in collectivist cultures regarding personality?

    <p>Social group norms and decisions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which trait in the Five Factor model is characterized by a tendency toward self-discipline and achievement?

    <p>Conscientiousness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best characterizes trait theories of personality?

    <p>They aim to describe rather than explain personality.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common method for assessing personality through behavioral observations?

    <p>Direct monitoring of behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a fundamental criticism of the psychodynamic perspective?

    <p>It cannot be empirically tested.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the concept of self-actualization emphasize?

    <p>The highest realization of human potential.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which facet of self-concept involves a mismatch between one's perceptions and experiences?

    <p>Incongruence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What bias is commonly identified in psychodynamic perspectives?

    <p>Gender bias.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is self verification in the context of self-concept?

    <p>Selectively attending to information that confirms one's self-concept.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a limitation of phenomenological-humanistic perspectives regarding self-concept?

    <p>They rely too much on self-reports of personal experiences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes the tendency to view oneself more favorably than the average person?

    <p>Self enhancement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which critique of humanistic perspectives is mentioned concerning the measurement of self-actualization?

    <p>It cannot be measured directly.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mechanism of biological evolution involves non-random reproduction based on mate preference?

    <p>Sexual selection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do genes play in biological evolution?

    <p>They contain information necessary for making proteins.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which principle is NOT one of the pillars of natural selection as proposed by Darwin?

    <p>Survival of the fittest</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of evolutionary psychology?

    <p>Understanding the human mind's design through evolutionary theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes genetic drift?

    <p>Random changes in allele frequencies due to chance events.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of evolution, what does the term 'biological fitness' refer to?

    <p>Number of copies of genes passed to future generations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about mutations in the context of evolution is true?

    <p>Mutations can introduce new genetic variations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept explains the presence of traits that do not seem beneficial for survival?

    <p>Sexual selection advantages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor does NOT contribute to genetic variation in populations?

    <p>Environmental changes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements accurately describes the brain's design in evolutionary psychology?

    <p>It is a system tuned for solving ancestral problems.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What evolutionary event is linked with the emergence of Homo sapiens?

    <p>Cognitive revolution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a unique feature of the evolutionary perspective on human psychology?

    <p>It connects physiological traits with behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of natural selection is focused on the concept of competition?

    <p>Struggle for existence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of heritability in the context of evolution?

    <p>It's necessary for the passing of advantageous traits.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Milgram's Obedience Study

    • Influences: The My Lai massacre, the Vietnam War, and Adolf Eichmann's actions motivated Milgram's research.
    • Aim: To investigate willing obedience in the absence of threats, maintained by repeated authority commands.
    • Procedure: Participants advertised for a study on learning and memory were assigned as "teachers" (real participants) and a "learner" (stooge). Teachers administered electric shocks, increasing the voltage, for incorrect answers. An experimenter encouraged continued shocking.
    • Results: 62.5% of participants administered the highest shock level (368 volts average).
    • Variations:
      • Learner proximity: Significant drop in obedience when learner was in the same room or required the teacher to physically deliver the shock.
      • Experimenter proximity: Obedience decreased when the experimenter gave orders over the phone.
      • Location: Obedience was higher in a laboratory setting (Yale) than in a less prestigious location.
    • Observations: Participants displayed stress and did not enjoy shocking the learner and were not psychopaths.
    • Explanations (1): "Unthinking obedience"
      • Absorption: Participants see themselves as part of the experiment and lose individual responsibility.
      • Agentic state: Participants believe they act on the experimenter's behalf.
    • Explanations (2): Not unthinking but identification:
      • Gradual increments: The incremental increases in voltage made it progressively harder to disobey.
      • Legitimacy: Participants believed the experimenter's authority was genuine.
      • Social beliefs: Participants subscribed to norms that supported obedience.
      • Role models: The presence of a rebel lessened conformity.
    • Milgram's own notes: Milgram's personal reflections on the study's moral implications, authority and social influence motivation.
    • Ethical Concerns: Informed consent may have been questionable; participant's right to withdraw might have been compromised; potential for anxiety and harm.
    • Burger (2009) Replication: Burger ethically replicated Milgram's study up to a maximum voltage of 150 volts (to avoid risk).
    • Ethics of Virtual Reality: Slater et al used VR to study obedience in a safer manner, measuring physiological responses to simulate shocks.
    • Gonzalez-Franco et al (2018): Study found that participants showed focus on accuracy when a VR learner was present, perhaps suggesting genuine concern for the learner's welfare.
    • Criticisms:
      • Laboratory Context: Questionable ecological validity; participants might behave differently in a more ordinary setting or feel less pressure to conform.
      • Deception: Participants weren't fully informed about the true nature of the experiment.

    Other Studies on Social Influence & Conformity

    • Allport (1924): Early view of groups as convenient constructs, overlooking social norms & influence in favour of individual behaviour shaped by environmental cues.
    • Sherif (1935): Groundbreaking study on norm formation in groups: Individuals' judgment of an ambiguous stimulus (autokinetic effect) converged to a group norm even after being judged alone.
    • Asch (1951-1956): Participants tended to conform to incorrect group judgments on a line-judgement task even when the answers were clear.
    • Deutsch & Gerard (1955): Dual process theory integrated Sherif and Asch's findings.
      • Informational influence: Used when unsure of objective reality and needs information from trusted sources
      • Normative influence: The desire to be liked and accepted
    • Turner (1991): Individuals identities are linked to the groups they belong to; conformity to in-group norms is greater.
    • Platow et al (2005): Study on laughter contagion, showing how laughter can be influenced by others. Conformity appears to depend on perceiving those providing stimuli as in-group membership or out-group.

    Developmental Psychology

    • Key Debates: Stability vs. change, continuity vs. discontinuity, nature vs. nurture, critical vs. sensitive periods.
    • Infant Development: Human development beings in utero with a 38-40 week gestation period. 50% brain development by 6 months. Myelination and synaptogenesis continue up to age 2 but neural plasticity diminishes thereafter.
    • Teratogens: Substances that cause atypical development. Perera et al (2002) and Latini et al (2003) studies.
    • Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD): Exposure to alcohol during pregnancy can result in physical, cognitive, and behavioural problems.
    • Jean Piaget (1896-1980): Stage theory of cognitive development:
      • Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Infants explore the world through senses and actions but have little capacity for understanding object permanence (and display perseverative reaching/preservation).
      • Preoperational (2-6 years): Children exhibit egocentrism, difficulty viewing things from another’s point of view, and lack logical operations.
      • Concrete operational (7-12 years): Children can perform logical operations on concrete objects but have difficulty with abstract reasoning.
      • Formal operational (12 years-adult): Abstract reasoning and hypothesis testing emerge; a foundation for scientific thinking.
    • Vygotsky (1896-1934): Focused on social constructivism and the zone of proximal development (ZPD), highlighting the role of others in learning.

    Theory of Mind (ToM) and Executive Functions

    • Theory of Mind: The ability to understand that other people have different thoughts, beliefs, and desires and the basis of social cognition.
    • False Belief Task: Children’s ability to grasp that another person may hold a false belief about reality develops around age 4.
    • Executive Functions: Cognitive abilities for self-control, attention, planning and flexible thinking (e.g., inhibition, working memory, shifting).
    • Preservative reaching: Infant's persistence on a given action even if it's no longer appropriate is associated with difficulty dealing with the environment.
    • Atypical Development (e.g., ASD): Children with autisitc spectrum disorders often demonstrate impairments in theory of mind, executive functions and imitation.

    Biological Psychology

    • Neuroimaging: Techniques to study brain structure and function (e.g., CT, MRI, EEG, fMRI, MEG, TMS).
    • Disorders of Consciousness: Coma, vegetative state, and locked-in syndrome present challenges in identifying residual awareness.
    • Basic Brain Anatomy: Frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes and their functions.
    • Lateralization: Brain hemispheres specialized for different functions (e.g., language in left).
    • Emotions: The role of the amygdala: The amygdala is implicated in fear conditioning and recognizing facial expressions of fear.
    • Neurotransmitters: GABA, acetylcholine, serotonin, dopamine, and endorphins.
    • Drugs & Synaptic Transmission: Psychoactive drugs affect neurotransmitter receptor sites.
    • Biological Bases of Personality: Twin studies suggest that genetic factors contribute to personality differences.

    Sensation & Perception

    • Sensation and Perception: The process of taking in and interpreting sensory information.
    • Visual Perception (Eye Structure): Retinas, fovea (central vision), cones (color), and rods (dim light) functions.
    • Colour Constancy and Depth: Our ability to perceive color and depth depends on more than just sensory input, requiring cognitive processing.
    • Gestalt Psychology: The tendency to perceive organized wholes, not just individual parts, drives our visual experience.
    • Face Preferences: A preference for faces (e.g., normal faces) is apparent from infancy; likely adaptive for social communication and interaction with others.

    Embodied Cognition

    • Embodied Cognition: The idea that cognition is grounded in our sensory and motor experience of the world. Representations are distributed across sensory and motor systems.
    • Body-mind effects: The effect of holding an object in the hand on perception of objects and their actions; the physical context can influence cognitive processes.
    • Mind-body effects: The effect of our perception on our actions as a result of sensory and motor systems processes; our mind influence the body.

    Memory

    • Reconstructive Memory: Memory is not a direct record of experience but rather a reconstruction influenced by inferences, schemas, and context.
    • Schemas: Knowledge structures that influence memory encoding and retrieval.
    • Eyewitness Testimony Issues: Weapon focus, misinformation effect, suggestibility, and the limitations of reconstructive memory.
    • Cognitive Interview: Technique to improve the accuracy of eyewitness accounts.

    Evolutionary Psychology

    • Evolutionary Psychology (EP): An approach studying how natural selection shaped the human mind, focusing on the EEA (Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness).
    • Natural Selection: Competition, variation, and heritability are influential mechanisms.
    • Sexual Selection: Intersexual selection (preference), and intrasexual selection (competition).
    • Mismatch Problem: An evolutionary mismatch between past environments and our present conditions leads to challenges.
    • EP criticisms: Difficulty testing backwards inferences, "just-so" stories, uncertainty about EEA, and possible biases.
    • Comparative EP: A subfield that compares humans and other species to increase our understanding of the evolutionary origins of the mind and understand more about innate and learned cognition.

    Individual Differences / Personality

    • Personality: Distinctive and relatively enduring ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving.
    • Trait Theories: Describing personality in terms of traits (stable characteristics of an individual).
    • Factor Analysis: Identifying clusters (factors) of related personality traits.
    • Big Five Model: Cattell (basic traits), Eysenck (extraversion-stability), McCrae and Costa (five-factor model: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism (big five))
    • Personality Assessment: Structured interviews, behavioral observations, personality scale use.
    • Cultural & Gender Differences: Cultural values, norms, and gender roles can affect personality expression; personality measures may not be universally applicable.

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    Explore the intricacies of Milgram's obedience study, its influences, aims, and key results. This quiz delves into the psychological aspects of authority and obedience, examining how variations in the experiment affected participants' willingness to obey commands. Test your understanding of this landmark study in psychology.

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