Microprocessors: Components, Functions, and Speed

• The CPU is also called a processor or simply processor
• The CPU controls everything that happens on a computer
• Composed of a complex circuit made of millions of miniature electronic components
• The electronic components are encapsulated in a silicon chip
• The chip communicates externally through hundreds of pins or connectors
• The pins or connectors provide data and current
• A microprocessor consists of control unit, arithmetic logic unit, cache memory and registers
• The microprocessor's function is to direct and coordinate components, perform math, execute programs

Speed

• Indicates the rhythm of microprocessor function
• The rhythm is marked by the clock
• The clock is a signal in the form of periodic waves
• The rhythm is measured in cycles per second or hertz (Hz)
• Because clocks generate many hertz, they are measured commonly in kilo, mega, or giga
• The clock rate indicates operations the microprocessor can perform per second
• The clock rate is a reference for speed
• Speed factors involve technology and number of cores

Number of Cores

• As the size of integrated circuits has decreased, microprocessor size has also decreased
• Multiple cores are available where space was previously available for a single core
• Having multiple cores improves microprocessor performance
• The microprocessor can perform multiple operations at same time, one per core
• Multiple cores reduce electricity consumption, which is important for portable computers
• Multiple cores reduce heating, which is the primary issue with a microprocessor
• Microprocessors usually have an even number of cores between 2 and 64
• The number of cores depends on the computer type for which the chip is designed

Cache Memory

• Serves to improve computer's performance
• Places data most used by the microprocessor in memory
• The memory is smaller and faster than RAM
• Divided into three levels, L1, L2, L3, from smallest to largest
• L1 is located inside microprocessor's core
• L1 is divided at times between data cache and instruction cache
• L2 is located inside or outside of cores
• L2 may be one per one or two cores if outside
• L3 is common to all cores
• L1 cache size is measured in kilobytes, ranging between 64-320 per core
• L2 cache is measured in kilobytes or megabytes, ranging between 512KB-2MB per core
• L3 cache is measured in megabytes, ranging between 2-16MB per core

Manufacturing Technology

• Expressed in nanometers which are a billionth (milmillonésima) part of a meter
• Used to measure size of logic gates, smallest elements of an integrated circuit chip, or minimum distance between them
• Indicates a more modern manufacturing technology when the nanometer quantity is lower
• Current technologies range between 10 nanometers in computer microprocessors and 3 in smartphone microprocessors

Instruction Set

• Instruction set refers to set of machine level commands
• Each microprocessor family has its own instruction set
• The unique instruction set results in each one having a different assembler language
• Microprocessors expand instruction set by adding new instruction groups for specific use
• Added groups are called extensions
• Microprocessor families grouped into instruction set architectures, or ISA

CISC Architectures (Complex Instruction Set Computing)

• Microprocessors work with complex instructions
• Advantages includeinstruction code is smaller and requires less memory
• Fewer instructions to write a program
• Provides support for complex data structures which facilitates compiling in high level languages
• Disadvantages include multiple clock cycles to complete and instruction
• Microprocessor design requires more hardware, increasing price
• Generates higher energy consumption and temperature
• Older Intel and AMD microprocessors are examples of CISC architectures

RISC Architectures (Reduced Instruction Set Computing)

• Microprocessors work with simple instructions
• Complex high-level instructions decomposed into simpler, machine-level instructions.
• Advantages include every instruction executed in one clock cycle improving performance
• Microprocessor design requires less hardware, reducing price
• Generates low energy consumption and temperature
• Disadvantages include software programs use complex instructions that must be broken down
• Extremely fast memory and cache is needed to store instructions
• Due to simple instructions, there is greater dependence between them varying performance based on code is being executed

Hybrid Architectures

• Uses mixture of simple and complex for both CISC and RISC
• Modern Intel and AMD use primarily CISC with some RISC extensions

Cooling System

• Integrated circuit (chip) excess temperature is the primary problem
• Issue is critical in chips used intensively such as the microprocessor, chipset, or RAM
• Cooling systems reduce the temperature of computer components
• Cooling systems include heat sinks (passive) and fans (active)
• High-end computers use liquid cooling systems like those used in cars with refrigerant flowing through tubes
• Cooling systems are key for gaming

Heat Sink

• A piece of conductive metal, generally aluminum or copper
• Draws heat from a chip, and distributes it across surface and into air
• Heat sinks come in various sizes and shapes designed for best possible heat dispersion
• Heat sink must physically contact the chip to be cooled, transferring die's heat will to heat sink, dissipating into air
• Thermal paste can improve transfer of heat from chip to heat sink with chemically elevated thermal conductivity
• Heat sinks do not generate sound or consume electricity
• Heat sinks not affected by dust, and dependent on size

Fan

• A better option than heat sinks where chips get too hot to cool
• The heat sink is a combo of moving blades, extracting hot air and cooling chips
• Fans used with chips like CPU, graphics card, PCH, high speed ram
• They are placed in the case to bring in cool air and extract hot air
• The most used combo for high heat microprocessors involves heat sink to extract the heat with an air dispersing fan

Fan Advantages

• Cool down quickly and control blade speed depending on necessary refrigeration
• They make noise, use currents, and blades could get stuck due to cables or dust
• They require cleaning and oiling

RAM

• Main random access memory
• A set of integrated circuits packaged in a module
• Module fits motherboard to store data being worked on
• The RAM is volatile and erased upon electrical current stop, computer shutdown for instance
• The RAM has random access at any moment as data is read or written without passing previous locations

RAM Function

• An intermediary between microprocessor and storage units like hard drives and external drives
• The RAM maintains the information that the microprocessor needs, such as data and instructions
• Provides for performance better than if microprocessor worked directly with slower units
• The RAM data is read and written when non-volatile memory use is necessary
• The micropressor identifies memory's direction of work through direction bus
• Operation of reading or writing is carried out through control bus
• Data is transmitted through the data bus

RAM Characteristics

• Capacity is amount of information that can be stored
• The RAM is measured in multiples of bytes with current ones in multiple gigabytes (GB)

Clock Speed

• Modern RAMs function synchronously
• RAM operations follow a rhythm marked by their own clock signal, different from CPU clock
• The clock signal as with CPU clock is measured in hertz (Hz)
• Current RAM memories reach speeds of MHz or GHz

Bandwidth or Transfer Rate

• Quantity of transferable data between memory and CPU over period of time
• Usually measured in MB/s or GB/s
• Transfer rate measures quantity of transfers per second (megatransfers by second or MT/s)

Latencies

• Time taken to access a concrete memory position
• Timings are measured in number of clock cycles
• Memory organized as a table with rows and columns, with access requiring calculation of row and column
• The two access times include RAS and CAS

RAS Latency

• Row Access Strobe Latency or RL
• The time taken to access the row of the memory position

CAS Latency

• Column Access Strobe Latency or CL
• The time taken to access the column of the memory position

RAM Types

• Two types of RAM include static and dynamic

Static RAM

• SRAM is very fast but also expensive requiring a continuous supply of current
• Used in older memories, its cost means it is not used for primary memory except for cache

Dynamic RAM

• DRAM is cheaper, leading it to be the one used for main RAM
• Dynamic because data can maintain itself without consuming current for short time
• Must still regularly receive current refresh to avoid data being erased
• Common dynamic RAM is synchronous (SDRAM)
• This uses clock pulse synchronized with microprocessor

SDRAM Memory

• Commonly of type DDR
• Acronym comes from using both edges of a clock, to duplicate performance
• DDR memories allow doing several operations per clock cycle making the effective speed a multiple of the physical marked
• Operates at double the speed of the clock
• Speeds include DDR2 quadruple times as fast and DDR3, DDR4 and DDR5 eight times faster
• Manuals specify what type must be used
• The type of memory may involve modules of different speeds
• Modules must be of same speed to achieve optimum performance as slow speeds penalize

Memory Modules

• A sticker usually identifies in module type or DDR standard
• This indicates rate indicating effective speed and module type
• Can determine bandwidth with velocity effective * the bus width (8 bytes in a 64 bits)

Expansion Cards

• Expansion slots allows you to insert to the base plate expansion cards broadening computer abilities
• These cards install components not included by the manufacturer of base plates whose potentiality or quantity not enough
• The most common cards are graphics, sound, network, and USB expansion cards

Graphics Card Expansion

• Video the most habitual expansion card to include in a computer
• Normally connects to a base plate via the PCIex16-slot with multiple video release plugs
• Built-in graphics cards have capability of graphing without external cards
• Integrated cards process graphics through CPU and reserves RAM for graphic use
• Common for ofimatica work and Internet, but fall short in multimedia and video games
• For these reasons a expansion card is included to broaden graphics especially though GPU which includes VRAM

Expansion Card Advantages

• Base plate is freed of graphic task, quickening performance CPU and RAM available
• No as competent but GPU excels at quickening graphics with a soldered chip

Expansion Card Manufacturers

• ATI, that is AMD, and nVIDIA
• Others exist through GPUs from Intel but aren't as potent and set for lower budgets

VRAM

• Similar to RAM, specialised used by GPU and CPU
• Uses DDR of quick speed for graphics (GDDR) as soldered chips to graphics
• A faster version GDDR7 has appeared for commercial sale
• It emanates considerable heat warrant cool to mitigate though use sinks and fans with VRAM

Graphic Potency

• Some programs allow connecting cords with multiple graphics running rendering with CrossFire and Scalable Link Interface

Sound Card

• Sound cards do not use hardware instead uses its core to manipulate sounds
• All sound cards create high quality with several connections so this device unneeded
• Audio editing might need a external cord to open more entrance points into a base to ameliorate into play or modify audio

Sound Card Companies

• Famous brands have their work cut out for music such as Creative and Loud Blaster

Network Card (NIC)

• NICs are simpler and more basic than sounds on most modern baseplates
• Includes ports cable, or wireless
• Most users don't need an extra NIC device
• Routers rely on NICs that provide connections
• Wired are basic to base, most cable wont do.

USB Expansion

• Variety exists, but the most include type A or B ports that often are not enough
• Extra ports can be installed to aid these connectivity issues

Storage Units

• Base plate memory components such as RAM, cache and registers are volatile
• Require additional external peripherals for permanent storage as these are external except M.2

Available storage

• Hard disks and SSDs are all options for mass information gathering
• Optic, flash and discs are used commonly

Storage Classifications and Units

• Inner units that mount inside drive are CD DV,D BlueRay
• SATA, Pata connections are memory card readers with header USB to base plate
• Externally, many drivers connect to external such as the above and SAtA
• Both can be used

Hard Disks

• Essential unit of nonvolatile data compilation
• Main options by function
• Mechanical hdd disks metal rotation compilation via hdd
• Ssds are comprised non volatile memory chips and flash

HDD Formats

• Traditional formats are the 3.5"s for PC and smaller 2.5" portable
• SSD are modern with portable format as 2.5, additionally the SSD.2 connect are tiny for base plate inclusion

Base Connections

• HDD SSD use connections such PATA or old HDD
• SATA most useful connected
• PCI is the SSD and also used
• M.2 as well uses both combinations or just one
• SCSI offers high performance but is costly
• SAS is an evolution of SCSI like SATA, also difficult to acquire

HDD Needs

• Auxiliary or molex
• Also have data SATA data

HDD Functions

• An HDD combines discs of alloys
• Spinning on axis using engines
• Dishes covered of magnets
• Use heads through magnetic reading by a flexible cord PCB controlling the device

HDD organization areas

• A singular disc circle of a certain face and furthest to the origin =track
• Parts being broken though bites = sector
• Join sectors to comprise small stored compilation called = cluster
• Form sector is considered 3d like geometric
• Vertically the device reads in horizontal

HDD characteristics

• The device connects and capacity to the point one can estimate size rate and transfer of data.
• Typical speeds range from 5400 to 7200 on pc and from 1000 to 15000 on a server
• Rate depends on velocity of disc

Tasa de transferencia o Velocidad de transferencia

• Quantity of data the disk is capable of transmitting per area of data
• Is gigabytes per second (GB/s).

Other factors on HDD speed include:

• Access timing is key measure of transfer of information being compiled inside the MB

SSD (Solid State Drive)

• Non-volatile device based to circuits

FLASH

• Technology used by PENDrive and memory
• Similar operation to RAM of compilation access direction memory without much data saved

SSD benefits

• Speed quickness in the process.

Ssd properties

• Resistant to shakes smaller noise current warm more efficient
• In addition to a shorter lifespan being more sensible to data loss over time

Early SSD

• SSD are often sata for connecting hdd as based for current base plate

• Plus they used format through the traditional

• HDD3.5 portable through the proper position to avoid shaking screw of hook

Express PCI SATA

• SSD use other cables that aren't capable but excel such pcle
• In same manner graphics cards do

SSD chips usage

• Have been increasing sizes. Also do not required mechanical so protection not mandatory
• Through small sides 2.4 form smaller baseplate

Connecting the SSD

• Connect SSD to sata through msata being smaller being obsolete
• Can connect pcie for a SSD that is msata or NVMe

Alliances benefits

• Small sides the alliance helps the portables be more portable that made the boxes more compact

M.2 Interfaces

• Replaces the older SATA and it is compatible with SATA PCIe, NVMe. Can be chosen with no problem by users due to mass compilation for both
• All side will be through smaller card no matter

M.2 lengths

• Manual needs specific of its base compatibility
• Space must be available as both desktops or portables need the location

External SSD

• Connects to the units through USB to change interface and use of covering

Optical unites

• Optical drives are optical for compilation or read of the data
• Use levels of power to write a code that the same laser reads
• Is the data to save on the device

CD components

CDs are:

• Carbonate plastic
• Metal reflective layer: composed zinc or aluminum.
• Protective transparent top

Functionality

• Compilation device applied to detect power and compilation through perforations

Writing with power

• Power is used on the reflective layer

Other Disc

• These discs read at double capacity

Optical drives

• Can be PATA, SATA and rare: SCSI
• Differences come down to nano differences depending if the capacity is less or more

Basic components

• Sound or data and those come on to the disc

Explore the central processing unit (CPU), its components, and functions within a computer system. Learn about its composition of electronic components on a silicon chip, communication methods, and the roles of the control unit, arithmetic logic unit, cache memory, and registers. Understand microprocessor speed.