Memory: Sensory and Short-term Concepts

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Questions and Answers

What are the main processes involved in memory?

The main processes involved in memory are encoding, storage, and retrieval.

How long does iconic sensory memory typically last?

Iconic sensory memory typically lasts about 1/2 second.

What is proactive interference in the context of short-term memory?

Proactive interference occurs when old information impairs the ability to learn new information.

Describe the role of the central executive in working memory.

The central executive acts as a manager, directing attention and coordinating activities within working memory. Signup and view all the answers

What is the phonological loop and how does it affect memory?

The phonological loop is a component of working memory that deals with auditory information and helps in retaining sounds and speech. Signup and view all the answers

What difficulties may individuals with frontal lobe damage face regarding working memory?

Individuals with frontal lobe damage may have trouble with switching goals and planning due to impaired executive functions. Signup and view all the answers

What is retroactive interference?

Retroactive interference occurs when new information impairs the ability to recall old information. Signup and view all the answers

How does the visuospatial sketchpad function in working memory?

The visuospatial sketchpad allows for the manipulation and storage of visual and spatial information. Signup and view all the answers

What is the key difference between shallow and deep processing according to the levels of processing theory?

Shallow processing involves little attention to meaning and focuses on physical attributes, while deep processing focuses on the meaning of information and relates new knowledge to existing knowledge. Signup and view all the answers

How does self-reference enhance memory encoding?

Self-reference enhances memory encoding because it makes information personally relevant, which can aid in understanding and retention. Signup and view all the answers

What role do retrieval cues play in memory recall?

Retrieval cues facilitate the transfer of information from long-term memory to working memory by recreating the environment or context in which the original information was encoded. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the concept of encoding specificity in relation to memory retrieval.

Encoding specificity suggests that recall is improved when the cues present at the time of retrieval are similar to those at the time of encoding. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of consolidation in memory formation?

Consolidation is crucial for transforming new memories from a fragile state into a more stable, permanent state in long-term memory. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the impact of generating information on memory retention.

Generating information leads to better encoding and retention as it actively engages the learner in the material, making it more memorable. Signup and view all the answers

How does contextual matching influence recall effectiveness?

Contextual matching enhances recall effectiveness because individuals tend to remember information better when they are in the same environment as when they encoded it. Signup and view all the answers

What is the testing effect, and how does it relate to retrieval practice?

The testing effect refers to the phenomenon where practicing retrieval of information (through testing) enhances long-term retention more than simply restudying the material. Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between primacy effect and recency effect in memory recall?

The primacy effect refers to the tendency to remember items at the beginning of a list, while the recency effect pertains to remembering items at the end of a list. Signup and view all the answers

How do episodic and semantic memory differ in terms of memory recall?

Episodic memory pertains to specific events and personal experiences, whereas semantic memory involves general knowledge and information about the world. Signup and view all the answers

What defines nondeclarative (implicit) memory and how is it different from declarative (explicit) memory?

Nondeclarative memory involves learning without conscious awareness, while declarative memory requires conscious retrieval of information. Signup and view all the answers

What role does encoding play in the formation of long-term memory?

Encoding is the process of acquiring information and transferring it into long-term memory, which is crucial for memory retention. Signup and view all the answers

Can you explain the concept of the Mandela Effect in relation to memory?

The Mandela Effect refers to instances where a large group of people remember an event or detail differently than how it actually occurred. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of procedural memory among nondeclarative memories?

Procedural memory involves learning skills and tasks, like riding a bike, that can be performed without conscious thought. Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of 'remember' differ from 'know' in the context of memory?

'Remember' involves the recollection of specific details related to an experience (episodic), whereas 'know' reflects a sense of familiarity with information (semantic). Signup and view all the answers

What impact does classical conditioning have on implicit memory formation?

Classical conditioning influences behavior and responses through associations created without conscious awareness. Signup and view all the answers

What is synaptic consolidation and how does it relate to long-term potentiation?

Synaptic consolidation involves structural changes at synapses that contribute to the strengthening of synaptic connections, and this process is closely linked to long-term potentiation (LTP), which increases neuronal excitability along specific pathways. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the standard model of systems consolidation.

The standard model of systems consolidation outlines that incoming information activates various cortical areas, leading to communication with the hippocampus, which coordinates connections between these areas, reducing the hippocampus's role as connections strengthen. Signup and view all the answers

What is retrograde amnesia and how does it differ from graded amnesia?

Retrograde amnesia is the inability to retrieve prior long-term memories, while graded amnesia refers to a more pronounced memory loss for memories closer to the incident, reflecting the degree of consolidation. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the role of sleep in memory consolidation.

Sleep plays a critical role in memory consolidation by facilitating strong reactivation of memories with minimal interference, which helps strengthen memory traces. Signup and view all the answers

What is reconsolidation, and why is it important?

Reconsolidation is the process of consolidating a memory after it has been retrieved, making it critical for updating and stabilizing memories that may have become fragile. Signup and view all the answers

Identify two types of interference that can lead to forgetting and give brief explanations.

Proactive interference occurs when old information disrupts the learning of new information, while retroactive interference happens when new information hinders the recall of older information. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by retrieval failure and how can it manifest?

Retrieval failure refers to the inability to access memory retrieval pathways or the weakening of these pathways, which can manifest as test anxiety or the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. Signup and view all the answers

How does infantile amnesia relate to memory consolidation?

Infantile amnesia refers to the inability to remember events from early childhood, likely due to the incomplete consolidation of memories during that age. Signup and view all the answers

What is source memory and why is it important in understanding memory errors?

Source memory refers to recalling the origin of knowledge and memories, and it is important because errors in source memory can lead to misattributions and false memories. Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon explains the feeling of having encountered something before, even if it is false?

This phenomenon is known as déjà vu, which occurs due to unexpected processing fluency. Signup and view all the answers

What is the misinformation effect and how does it affect memory recall?

The misinformation effect occurs when later information alters our original memory, leading to inaccuracies in recall. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the concept of implanted memories and how they can be created.

Implanted memories are created through suggestion and repeated recall, which can lead individuals to remember events that never actually occurred. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the research conducted by Brewer & Treyens (1981) related to memory errors.

Brewer & Treyens (1981) found that participants waiting in an office could mistakenly remember seeing books when there were none, demonstrating memory reconstruction errors. Signup and view all the answers

What is cryptomnesia and how might it lead to accidental plagiarism?

Cryptomnesia is when a person believes they originated an idea or thought, when in reality it was derived from an external source, potentially resulting in accidental plagiarism. Signup and view all the answers

Define flashbulb memories and provide an example of an event that commonly elicits them.

Flashbulb memories are vivid and detailed recollections of significant events, often accompanied by high confidence in their accuracy, such as the Challenger explosion in 1986. Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of source misattribution relate to the false fame effect?

Source misattribution refers to confusing the source of a memory, which can lead to the false fame effect, where individuals mistakenly believe that a familiar name is famous. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Sensory, Short-term, and Working Memory

Memory is the process of storing and retrieving information, similar to a computer.
Information is processed in stages: encoding (acquisition), storage, and retrieval.
Sensory memory is a temporary buffer holding sensory information.
Iconic memory is the brief visual persistence of an image.
Echoic memory is the brief auditory persistence of a sound.
Short-term memory (STM) holds information temporarily.
STM has a limited capacity and duration.
Span of STM is limited, typically 7 plus or minus 2 items (Miller, 1956).
Chunking can increase STM capacity by grouping items.
STM decays over time without rehearsal.
Interference, not decay, is the main cause of forgetting in STM.
Proactive interference occurs when old information interferes with the learning of new information.
Retroactive interference occurs when new information interferes with the recall of old information.
Working memory manages and manipulates information in STM.
Working memory has a central executive, a phonological loop (for auditory information), and a visuospatial sketchpad (for visual and spatial information).
Long-term memory (LTM) stores information for extended periods.
LTM includes declarative memory (explicit memory) and nondeclarative memory (implicit memory).
Declarative memory consists of semantic memory (general knowledge) and episodic memory (personal experiences).
Information in LTM may undergo consolidation, making the memory more permanent.
Retrieval of information is affected by cues that match the encoding or the context of learning.
Sleep contributes to consolidation of memories.

Long-Term Memory

Serial position effect: primacy effect (items at the beginning are easier to recall) and recency effect (items at the end are easier to recall).
Encoding specificity: cues that are present during recall enhance memory retrieval.
Context-dependent memory: better recall in the same context as encoding.
State-dependent memory: memories are better recalled in the same emotional/psychological state as encoding.
Transfer-appropriate processing: better recall when the retrieval process matches the encoding process.
Memory consolidation: the process of transforming new memories from a fragile state to a more permanent state.
Types of Long-Term Memory Errors
Decay: When information is lost due to time passing.
Interference: Old information interfering with the retrieval of new information (proactive interference), or new information interfering with the retrieval of old information (retroactive interference).
Retrieval Failure: Inability to access information stored in memory.
Blocking: Inability to retrieve the exact information.
Source Memory Errors: Incorrect memory for the origin of a memory.
Familiarity Errors: Mistaken recollection of prior familiarity.
False Memories: Remembering events that did not occur.
Constructive nature of memory: Memory isn't a perfect recording, but rather a construction based on what’s stored.

Memory Errors

Decay: Memories fade over time.
Interference: New learning can disrupt old memories (proactive or retroactive).
Retrieval failure: Inability to access a stored memory, sometimes due to blocking.
Source misattributions: Mistaking the source of a memory.
Cryptomnesia: Unconsciously using someone else's work as your own.
False memories: Remembering events that never happened.

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Description

Explore the intricacies of memory including sensory, short-term, and working memory. Learn about the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval, as well as important concepts such as iconic and echoic memory. Understand the limitations of short-term memory and the effects of interference on recall.