Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval

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Which of the following is the correct order of the stages of memory?

Encoding, Storage, Retrieval (correct)
Storage, Encoding, Retrieval
Retrieval, Storage, Encoding
Encoding, Retrieval, Storage

Paying attention to information is not essential for encoding it into memory.

False (B)

What is a retrieval cue?

a stimulus that indicates or helps in remembering

__________ involves retrieving information from memory with few, if any, cues.

recall Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of memory encoding with their descriptions:

Visual = Encoding of picture images Acoustic = Encoding of sound, especially words Semantic = Encoding of meaning Signup and view all the answers

Which factor does NOT directly affect the memory encoding process?

Storage capacity (B) Signup and view all the answers

In the context of memory retrieval, how does recognition differ from recall?

Recognition involves identifying information from a set of alternatives, whereas recall involves retrieving information with minimal cues. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Explain how the absence of appropriate retrieval cues can lead to memory failure, even if the information was properly encoded and stored.

Even if a memory is properly encoded and stored, without the correct cues to trigger its retrieval, the memory cannot be accessed. Signup and view all the answers

According to research, what is the capacity of short-term memory (STM)?

7 +/- 2 items (B) Signup and view all the answers

Maintenance rehearsal involves thinking about the meaning of the information to be remembered.

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

Name the component of the working memory model responsible for processing visual and spatial information.

visuospatial sketchpad Signup and view all the answers

__________ rehearsal involves repeating information over and over to keep it in working memory.

Maintenance Signup and view all the answers

Match the type of long-term memory with its description:

Semantic Memory = General knowledge and facts Episodic Memory = Specific personal events and their context Procedural Memory = How to perform motor skills Signup and view all the answers

What is chunking, and how does it enhance short-term memory (STM)?

Dividing large pieces of information into smaller, manageable units; it enhances STM by increasing the amount of information that can be held. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which component was added last to Baddeley's working memory model, acting as an interface between the other components and long-term memory?

Episodic Buffer (D) Signup and view all the answers

Explain how the encoding and retrieval processes differ significantly in STM versus LTM, referencing the effect on forgetting in each.

In STM, forgetting is primarily due to decay or displacement, with encoding being largely acoustic. LTM relies on semantic encoding, and forgetting is often due to retrieval failure, interference, or consolidation issues, indicating variance in both storage method and recall mechanism. Signup and view all the answers

Which brain region is primarily responsible for higher cognitive functions such as attention, thought, and language?

Prefrontal Cortex (B) Signup and view all the answers

The cerebellum is primarily involved in storing explicit long-term memories.

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

What type of memories are stored within the basal ganglia?

procedural memories Signup and view all the answers

Using flashcards and spaced repetition helps support ______.

remembering Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a method to enhance memory?

Ignoring distractions (D) Signup and view all the answers

Mnemonic devices primarily help in improving the storage of newly encoded information, but not retrieval.

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

According to the Levels of Processing Model, what is the most important factor influencing recall?

The way information is processed at the encoding stage. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Structural processing, which encodes physical qualities, results in long-term retention of information.

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

Why might studying in a similar environment as the test improve memory recall?

It activates context cues that aid in memory retrieval. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What type of rehearsal is involved in semantic processing, leading to better recall?

elaborative rehearsal Signup and view all the answers

Explain neural representation maintenance in the Cerebellum, with example of navigation.

The cerebellum maintains internal representations of the external world, which allow you to navigate through your living room in complete darkness. Signup and view all the answers

The recency effect may fade away if a person is ______ after learning new data, due to the limited storage capacity of STM.

distracted Signup and view all the answers

Match each level of processing with its corresponding activity:

Structural Processing = Encoding the physical appearance of a word. Phonetic Processing = Encoding sound information, such as rhyming words. Semantic Processing = Processing the meaning of a word and relating it to existing knowledge. Signup and view all the answers

According to the interaction between STM and LTM, why might items in the middle of a list be poorly recalled, compared to those at the beginning or end?

They are not in STM long enough to be consolidated into LTM before being displaced by newer items. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following options is least likely to improve the encoding of information into long-term memory, according to the Levels of Processing Model?

Repeating the information silently to yourself without thinking about its meaning. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Insanely difficult: Imagine you are simultaneously presented with visual, auditory, and semantic information. How would the Levels of Processing model predict the brain allocates resources, and what potential trade-offs might occur in terms of memory encoding for each type of information?

The brain would allocate resources based on individual predispositions or explicit strategies. Trade-offs may occur depending on the depth, if the limited STM prioritizes certain types of processing (e.g. semantic), visual or auditory encoding can suffer unless it is consciously maintained to promote long term retention. Signup and view all the answers

Which brain structure is MOST directly involved in the formation of new long-term semantic and episodic memories?

Hippocampus (B) Signup and view all the answers

The amygdala's primary function is processing sensory information, such as touch, taste, and smell.

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the neocortex also known as, literally translating to 'new rind' or 'new bark'?

New bark Signup and view all the answers

Damage to the _______ can result in the inability to form new declarative memories.

hippocampus Signup and view all the answers

Match each brain structure with its primary function related to memory:

Amygdala = Emotional memory consolidation Hippocampus = Formation of new declarative memories Neocortex = Storage of long-term explicit memories Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a primary function associated with the neocortex?

Regulating emotions like fear and aggression (C) Signup and view all the answers

Patient H.M., who had his hippocampi removed, demonstrated which significant memory deficit?

Inability to form new semantic knowledge. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Insanely difficult: Considering the distributed nature of memory storage in the brain, propose a theoretical scenario where semantic memory for a specific category (e.g., types of trees) could be selectively impaired, while other semantic categories and episodic memory remain largely intact. Which specific neural pathways or neocortical regions might be involved, and what underlying mechanism could explain such selective impairment?

Selective impairment of semantic memory for a specific category could occur due to highly localized damage or dysfunction within specific subregions of the neocortex that are specialized for processing and storing information about that category. For example, damage to a specific area within the temporal lobe that is heavily involved in representing visual features of trees, while sparing adjacent regions involved in other semantic categories, could lead to such a selective deficit. The underlying mechanism could involve disrupted connectivity between this specialized region and other areas involved in semantic retrieval, such as the anterior temporal lobe or prefrontal cortex. Another possibility could be a more diffuse disruption of synaptic plasticity mechanisms (e.g., long-term potentiation) within the affected region, preventing the reactivation and consolidation of existing memory traces for the specific category. Signup and view all the answers

Which memory-enhancing technique involves creating a pronounceable word from the first letters of several words?

Acronyms (A) Signup and view all the answers

Massed practice typically leads to better long-term retention compared to distributed practice.

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of overlearning a piece of information?

ensure information is available even under stress and more resistant to forgetting Signup and view all the answers

In memory enhancement, the principle that retrieval is easier when the learning and recall environments are similar is known as ______-dependence.

context Signup and view all the answers

Match the following memory technologies with their descriptions:

Hippocampal Prosthesis = Electrodes mimic brain activity in the hippocampus to boost recall. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) = A noninvasive brain stimulation technique that uses magnetic fields. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the main feature of 'narrative chaining' as a memory aid?

Constructing a story that links the words to be remembered in a specific sequence. (D) Signup and view all the answers

A researcher is investigating the effectiveness of hippocampal prostheses. What measurable outcome would indicate the prosthesis is functioning as intended?

Improved recall performance on subsequent learning tasks. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Insanely Difficult: How might transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) be theoretically applied to either enhance or impair specific encoding strategies (e.g., narrative chaining, acrostics) and what ethical considerations would arise?

TMS could disrupt areas of the prefrontal cortex during narrative chaining, impairing the ability to form meaningful connections. Enhancement in narrative chaining could be achieved by increasing cortical excitability in areas involved with memory and language. Ethical issues include potentially affecting individuals capacity of learning and possibly create false memories. Signup and view all the answers

Memory

The ability to take in, store, and recall information, including images, sounds, and meanings.

Encoding

Processing (acquiring) information for memory.